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The nature of Turkmenistan. State structure and politics

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	Official name:	Turkmenistan
	Capital:	Ashgabat
	The area of the land:	491.2 thousand sq. km
	Total population:	4.8 million people
	Population composition:	81% - Turkmen, 9% - Uzbeks, 3.5% - Russians, 1.9% - Kazakhs, 0.8% - Azerbaijanis, 0.8% - Tatars, 0.8% - Baluchis, 0.7% - Armenians, 0.3% - Ukrainians, 1.2% - others.
	Official language:	Turkmen, one still remains the wagging of the Russian language.
	Religion:	89% are Muslims, 9% are Christians, 2% are other confessions.
	Internet domain:	.tm
	Mains voltage:	~ 220 V, 50 Hz
	Country dialing code:	+993
	Country barcode:

Climate

The climate of Turkmenistan is sharply continental, arid, with large annual and daily temperature ranges, low air humidity, high evaporation and little precipitation.

Such a climatic regime is due to the location of Turkmenistan in the lower latitudes, a significant distance from the World Ocean, the peculiarities of atmospheric circulation, the nature of the surface structure, and the presence of mountain systems in the south and southeast. The absence of orographic barriers in the north and northwest allows cold air masses to freely penetrate into the territory of the country, which often causes a sharp cooling (especially in the winter-spring period) in almost all regions.

In general, the climate is characterized by extreme instability in the cold half of the year and relatively stable hot and dry summers, as well as mild and little snow, sometimes cold winters, short wet springs, dry autumn. The average January temperature is from -5 ° С in the northeast to + 4 ° С in the Atrek region; the absolute minimum is -32 ° С in the Tashauz region, -29 ° С in the foothill zone of the Kopetdag and -10.3 ° С in the south of the Caspian Sea coast. The average July temperature is + 28 ° С in the northeast and + 32 ° С in the south; the absolute maximum is + 49.9 ° C. The average annual precipitation is about 80 mm in the middle course of the Amu Darya, 150 mm in the Karakum Desert, 200-300 mm in the foothills and intermountain valleys, and over 400 mm in the mountains. The plains are characterized by hot dry winds and dust storms.

The snow cover is unstable, usually lasts for several days (in the northern regions and mountains). Winds are constant, north-east, north, north-west prevail; in the foothills of the Kopet Dagh, a dry hot wind, garmsil, blows in summer. The growing season is 200-270 days.

Geography

Turkmenistan is located in the southwestern part of Central Asia. In the north and east it borders with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, in the south - with Afghanistan and Iran. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Caspian Sea.

Only three types of landscape can be found here: desert plains, oases and mountains.

Most of the country's territory (about 80%) is a plain occupied by the Karakum Desert, which stretches from west to east for 880 km. (375,000 sq. Km). In the northwest, off the coast of the Caspian Sea, there is the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay with a height of 35 m below sea level. In the south and southwest lie the Kopetdag and Paropamiz mountains. The largest lake is Sarikamysh (salt). The main rivers are Amu Darya, Murghab and Tejen.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world. Desert vegetation prevails in Turkmenistan. Shrubs grow on the sands: white and black saxaul, kandym, cherkez, sandy acacia, astragalus, bloated sedge prevails in the grass cover. On the salt marshes and litters, the comb, sarsazan, potash, etc. grow. On the Ustyurt plateau, there are shrub solyanka: karadzha-cherkez, kevreik, biyurgun, tetir, gray wormwood. The river valleys are dominated by island tugai forests (mainly poplar-petta, poplar-turanga and elk). Wormwood, saltwort, saxaul, ephemeral and other communities are widespread. The vegetation is very sparse and has a low phytomass, but thanks to the good autumn-winter-spring vegetation, it is able to provide feed for the livestock population.

The desert lowlands and foothills of the Kopetdag are characterized by semi-shrub vegetation - southern and gray wormwood and ephemeral forbs. On the foothill plain, in the foothills of the Kopetdag, on Karabil and Badkhyz, ephemeral herbaceous vegetation (bulbous bluegrass, desert sedge, ferula) and ephemera are widespread. In the upper and middle belts of mountains (from 1000 m and above), on mountain plateaus and gentle slopes, one can see feather-grass and wheatgrass steppes; juniper forests are found at altitudes above 1500 m. The gorges of the Western Kopetdag are rich in wild fruit trees and shrubs (grapes, apple trees, hawthorns, cherry plums, almonds, pomegranates, walnuts, figs, pistachio). On Badkhyz there is a woodland of pistachios. Most of the desert is used (if grass grows) as year-round pastures.

Animal world. Animals are well adapted to live in deserts. Many of them are nocturnal, some can go without water for a long time and are distinguished by their ability to run quickly over long distances. The country has 91 species of mammals, 372 species of birds, 74 species of reptiles and about 60 species of fish. Among large mammals such animals as gazelle, argali, jackal, wolf, sand cat, steppe cat, corsac fox should be noted; from rodents - gerbils, ground squirrels and jerboas; from reptiles - agamas, monitor lizards, efa, gyurza, arrow snake, steppe boa constrictor, cobra, steppe turtle; from birds - saxaul jay, larks, desert raven, sparrows; invertebrates - beetles, scorpions, karakurt spider, phalanx.

In the foothill zone, along with a rich fauna of reptiles and rodents, the fauna of birds is abundant: crested lark, hoopoe, sand grouses, little bustard, kite, black vulture, griffon vulture, etc. wild cat; from birds - pheasant, chukar, Caspian mountain turkey (ular), etc. In Badkhyz kulan, argali, gazelle, hyena are found. In the Amu Darya valley - wild boar, Bukhara deer (Hangul); from birds - pheasant, etc. In the Amu Darya itself there are thorn, barbel, asp, carp, pseudo-spatula, etc .; in the Karakum canal and reservoirs, as well as in the Amu Darya, introduced herbivorous fish are widespread - grass carp and silver carp. There are many waterfowl along the banks of the reservoirs.

sights

Turkmenistan is the center of magnificent, unique architectural masterpieces of the past. Mausoleums erected over the graves of the most prominent people, so widespread in our country, have become traditional in the Islamic world since the 9th-10th centuries. The indisputable pearl among them is the mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in the old settlement of Merv, the architecture of the Merv ensemble of the 15th century is interesting. - the mausoleum of the Askhab, companions of the Prophet Muhammad. The mausoleum of Astana-baba, full of secrets, arouses admiration, near which you can always meet pilgrims.

A number of large architectural monuments are located on the territory of modern Turkmenistan:

Old Nisa - a palace and temple complex from the times of the Parthian state, I - III centuries. BC.

New Nisa is an ancient settlement with dwellings of slave owners and a large natural zone of the 1st - 18th centuries.

Geok-Tepe fortress (XIX century)

Parau - a medieval settlement with the mausoleums of Parau-bibi, Parau-ata, XII century.

Dehistan is a historical region in the west of Turkmenistan, consisting of a large Mashat cemetery with the Shir-Kabir mausoleum of the 10th century. and the ruins of the city of Missirian X-XV centuries.

Abiverd - medieval town with the ruins of a fortress, a mosque, buildings of the X-XVIII centuries.

Mausoleum of Abu-Said Mitkhene XI-XV centuries

Sarakhs is an ancient settlement with a fortress wall, mausoleums and Abul-Fazla (Sarakhs-baba) and Yarty-Gummez.

Talkhatan Baba is a mausoleum of the XII century. (30 km west of Mary)

Merv is one of the largest archaeological complexes in Central Asia and one of the most important historical and architectural reserves of Turkmenistan.

Ekedeshik is a cave settlement of the early Middle Ages near Tagtabazar, on the right bank of the Murghab River.

Astana-baba - the country estate of Omar-Kali, a mausoleum ensemble consisting of a mosque and a tomb (15 km from Atamurat), XII century.

Dayakhaty - caravanserai of the XI century. (near the city of Turkmenabat).

Darganata is a medieval town and mausoleum of the XI-XV centuries.

Izmukshir is an ancient city near Takht with a fortress wall, 1.5 km long.

Kunya Urgench - the remains of the capital of the Khorezmshah state with magnificent architectural monuments.

Shahsenem is a medieval settlement with the remains of a mosque.

Devkesengala is a medieval town (northwest of Kunya Urgench). Consists of the remains of a magnificent fortress and mausoleums.

Tasharvat is a caravanserai (38 km from Balkanabat). Rectangular fortification with a stone wall, inside there are ruins of a residential building.

The Seyitjemaledina Mosque is a masterpiece of Muslim architecture of the 15th century.

Gonur-Depe

Among the sands of the eastern Karakum, archaeologists have discovered the ruins of monumental fortresses and temples, in size capable of competing with the structures of Assyria and Babylon. In 1992, the huge necropolis of Gonur-Depe was opened. Numerous utensils, mirrors, cosmetic vessels, silver jewelry, alabaster and ceramic vases and many other items made in the 3rd millennium BC were found in the burials. NS.

Banks and currency

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 09.30 to 17.30.

Currency can be exchanged at banks, hotels and exchange offices (most exchange offices only accept banknotes of new issues and series). It is recommended to take with you as many small dollar bills as possible. There is a fairly extensive black market for currencies, where a clear preference is given to US dollars, however, it is not recommended to exchange money with private money changers due to the high risk of fraud.

Credit cards are accepted for payment only at Vnesheconombank's offices, in some large hotels and restaurants in Ashgabat, as well as at airlines' offices. It is impossible to pay with them in the provinces.

Travel checks can only be exchanged at Vnesheconombank (5% commission) in Ashgabat, the National Bank of Turkmenistan and in some other banks working with them. Preference is given to checks in US dollars. It is not possible to use checks in the provinces.

Manat (TMM, M) equal to 100 tenge is the currency of Turkmenistan. In circulation there are banknotes in denominations of 10,000, 5000, 1000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1 manat, as well as coins in denominations of 50, 20, 10, 5 and 1 tenge. The manat is the only legal tender in the country, but many goods (jewelry, high-end carpets, etc.) can only be purchased with foreign currency.

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Almost a quarter of the territory of Turkmenistan lies within the Turan lowland, occupied mainly by the Karakum desert.

Only in the south is a narrow strip of highlands and medium-high mountains. The southernmost point (and the CIS) is located near the town of Kushka.

In the southern part there are the Kopetdag mountains (height up to 2942 m, Rize city); to the north-west of them there are two separate ridges: Maly Balkhan (777 m) and Bolshoi Balkhan (1881 m). A foothill plain adjoins the Kopetdag from the north, which in the west merges with the Caspian low-lying plain. In the southeast, the northern foothills of Paropamiz - the Badkhyz (1267 m) and Karabil (984 m) highlands, separated by the Murgab River - enter Turkmenistan. In the extreme southeast - the spur of the Gissar ridge Kugitangtau (3139 m, the highest point of the republic).

In the north and northeast of the foothill plain of the Kopetdag, the Karakum Desert stretches, which are divided into central (or low-lying) and Zaunguzian. In the interfluve of the Amu Darya and Tejen, the southeastern Karakum are located. These deserts are characterized by cellular-ridge and hilly semi-overgrown sands; there are areas of dune sands, and in the depressions there are takyrs and sors.

The coastline of the Caspian Sea in the south is weakly indented, and only in the north it has winding outlines, forming bays (Kara-Bogaz-Gol, Krasnovodsk, Turkmen), peninsulas (Krasnovodsk, Darja, Cheleken) and spits (the largest is Krasnovodsk. Ogurchinsky, Kamysh-lyada and others.

Economic and social development of Turkmenistan; increased consumption of water resources. Turkmenistan is a water-deficient state. For 1 sq. km, there is only 0.94 thousand m3 of water per year (1999 data), while the average water supply to the territory of the CIS is 194 thousand m3 per year per 1 sq. km. km. The provision of own water resources per capita in the CIS is on average 16.6 thousand cubic meters. m per year, while in Turkmenistan this figure does not exceed 0.16 thousand cubic meters. m per year (i.e., more than 100 times lower than the average level of the CIS countries). The arid climate, low mountains, located parallel to the humid air currents, determine the extreme scarcity of water resources in Turkmenistan in comparison with other Central Asian states.

The hydrographic network is unevenly distributed: in most of the territory (central, northern, western) there are no rivers at all. The largest and most abundant river in Central Asia, the Amu Darya, runs along the eastern border of the republic. Its total length is 2520 km, of which about 1000 km flows through the territory.

The river network of southern Turkmenistan is represented by the rivers Murgab, Tejen, Atrek and small rivers on the north-eastern slope of the Kopetdag. On the territory of Turkmenistan there are about 3 thousand watercourses with a total length of 14,300 km. Channels less than 10 km long make up 95% of the total number of rivers. Only 40 streams have a constant flow. Lakes are an uncharacteristic element of hydrography. They are located mainly in the channel of the Uzboy, river floodplains and natural depressions. The largest are Sarykamysh (2200 sq. Km) and freshwater lakes of Western Uzboy (Yaskhan, Kara-Tegelek, Topiatan, etc.).

Coastline length - approx. 7 thousand km, average water salinity - 12.8%. The level of the Caspian Sea is 28.3 m below the level of the World Ocean (data from 1980), the maximum depth is 1025 m, but it is subject to significant long-term fluctuations. In the 20th century. the water level dropped by more than 2 m. To slow down the further drop in sea level (on average by 1.5-2.0 cm per year), a dam was built in 1980 between the Caspian Sea and the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay.

The bowels of the Caspian Sea are rich in oil and gas. Mirabilite and other salts are mined in the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay. The sea is home to valuable fish species, especially sturgeon (82% of the world catch), as well as herring, bream, pike perch, roach, carp, sprat.

The climate is sharply continental, arid, with large annual and daily temperature ranges, low air humidity, high evaporation and little precipitation.

The absence of orographic barriers in the north and northwest allows cold air masses to freely penetrate into the territory of the country, which often causes a sharp cooling (especially in the winter-spring period) in almost all regions.

Within Turkmenistan, there are 10 districts, united into 3 groups. Mountain and foothill: 1) Big and Small Balkhansky, 2) Kopetdag, 3) Paropamizsky - Badkhyz and Karabil, 4) Kugitangsky, 5) Krasnovodsky and Zauzboysky, which have a highly dissected erosional-tectonic relief. The mountains (Kopetdag, Kugitangtau, etc.) are characterized by high seismicity. Structural elevated plains - Ustyurt plateau and Zaunguz Karakum. Ustyurt is characterized by desert flat-topped uplands - kyrs with gray-brown desert soils; semi-shrub solyanka (tetir, biyurgun) and wormwood predominate. The surface of the raised alluvial plain of the Zaunguzya is dissected by ridges (30-60 m), sandy desert soils and rarely takyrs are developed in the inter-ridge depressions. Denudation drainless depressions are widespread (Akchakaya and others). In the Zaunguz region - psammophytes with ephemeroid forbs (mainly sedge-silt) and ephemera; from shrubs - saxaul, kandym, borjak, cherkez.

Low-lying plains: 1) Caspian or West-Turkmen lowlands, 2) Low-lying Karakum, 3) valleys and deltas of the Amu Darya, Murgab, Tejen rivers, as well as oases - on

a large territory in a desert climate, they are subjected to intense wind erosion, which has created various forms of aeolian relief (ridge, ridge-cellular and hilly-ridge sands; in the East and the Far West, dune sands occupy a significant place). In river valleys and deltas, alluvial (floodplain) meadow and meadow-takyr-like soils are widespread, and near-oasis sands are widespread. The landscape of river valleys and deltas as a whole has been artificially transformed and is a typical example of a cultural landscape. It is here that the main areas of cotton growing, melon growing and horticulture of Turkmenistan are located.

The territory of Turkmenistan is part of the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt and occupies part of two large tectonic elements - the Epipaleozoic Turan plate and the Alpine folded region.

The Predkopetdag foredeep is located between the Kopetdag and the Turan plate. The pre-Alpine basement is composed of pre-Upper Paleozoic metamorphic formations and effusive-sedimentary formations of the Upper Paleozoic - Triassic; the overlying complex is formed by sedimentary geosynclinal, geo-anticlinal and subplatform formations of the Mesozoic - Paleogene (up to 8 km thick), passing to the north into platform and orogenic formations of the Upper Oligocene - Anthropogen (several km thick), filling the West Turkmen depression and the Cis-Kopet-Dag trough. The eastern part of the territory of Turkmenistan, covering the mountain block-fold uplift of the southwestern spurs of the Gissar ridge, belongs to the epiplatform area. Its structure involves the Paleozoic basement and the Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary cover (the lower part of the latter is formed by platform formations of the Jurassic-Paleogene, and the upper part - by orogenic formations of the Neogene-Anthropogen). The southern regions are characterized by increased seismicity.

Desert vegetation prevails in Turkmenistan. Shrubs grow on the sands: white and black saxaul, kandym, cherkez, sandy acacia, astragalus, bloated sedge prevails in the grass cover. On the salt marshes and litters, the comb, sarsazan, potash, etc. grow. On the Ustyurt plateau, there are shrub solyanka: karadzha-cherkez, kevreik, biyurgun, tetir, gray wormwood. The river valleys are dominated by island tugai forests (mainly poplar-petta, poplar-turanga and elk). Wormwood, saltwort, saxaul, ephemeral and other communities are widespread. The vegetation is very sparse and has a low phytomass, but thanks to the good autumn-winter-spring vegetation, it is able to provide feed for the livestock population.

Above 2000 m, thickets of bushes (barberry, hawthorns, etc.) appear on more humid windward slopes and juniper woodlands appear on brown soils. The herbaceous layer contains a rich set of species, often beautifully blooming (irises, tulips, mandrakes, etc.). In the same layer, but on drier slopes, there are communities of thorny grasses (cousins) and cushion shrubs (astragalus, acantholimons, etc.), as well as mountain fescue and feather grass steppes. Since the steppe communities occupy the largest areas, this entire variegated belt is often called steppe.

The nonirrigated plains are characterized by xerophytic dwarf shrubs and shrubs. Many of them do not have leaves or shed them when a drought strikes. The roots are branched and penetrate to great depths (for example, in camel thorns more than 20 m). The seeds of desert plants are often pubescent or have peculiar wings that facilitate wind transfer. Many plants of sandy deserts are adapted to rooting quickly, even in moving soils.

The flora of Turkmenistan includes many endemic species.
The richness of the flora can be judged by the fact that only in the Kopetdag there are 2 thousand species of higher plants, and in deserts and low mountains - at least 1 thousand. Genetically, all this flora has close ties with the Mediterranean, the Middle and Near East.

In low mountains, ephemeral communities on gray soils are common, sometimes very peculiar, for example, sparse thickets of tall (up to 2.5-3 m) umbrella grasses (ferula, dorema). The background for them is made up of ephemeral low grasses (sedge, bluegrass, poppies, etc.). In summer, the view changes dramatically.

In the lower parts of the mountain slopes on dark gray soils, communities of large-grain ephemeroids (wheatgrass, regneria, bonfire) are widespread, which are sometimes called steppe and which burn out by summer. Above 900-1000 m there is a belt of wormwood deserts on light brown soils.

On the Badkhyz Upland and in a number of other mountainous regions, there were
successful experiments were carried out to create pistachio forests. There is reason to believe that this tree species existed there before, but was destroyed as a result of centuries of grazing on the slopes. Pistachio harvesting is both an important aid in the diet of the local population and as a commodity supply to the market.

A special place is occupied by the so-called. tugai - thickets of poplar, oak, white willow, comb, giant grasses and other moisture-loving plants along the banks of the Amu Darya and Murghab.

In the oases, cotton, alfalfa, melons and horticultural crops are grown, as well as grapes.

Among large mammals such animals as gazelle, argali, jackal, wolf, sand cat, steppe cat, corsac fox should be noted; from rodents - gerbils, ground squirrels and jerboas; from reptiles - agamas, monitor lizards, efa, gyurza, arrow snake, steppe boa constrictor, cobra, steppe turtle; from birds - saxaul jay, larks, desert raven, sparrows; invertebrates - beetles, scorpions, karakurt spider, phalanx.

There are Krasnovodsk reserve, Badkhyz reserve, Repetek reserve in Turkmenistan.

The content of the article

TURKMENISTAN, Republic of Turkmenistan, a state in Central Asia. It shares borders with Kazakhstan in the north, Uzbekistan in the north and east, Iran and Afghanistan in the south. In the west it is washed by the Caspian Sea. From 1924 to 1991, Turkmenistan was part of the USSR as a union republic (Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic). The independence of Turkmenistan was proclaimed in October 1991.

NATURE

Relief.

Turkmenistan is the most flat country in Central Asia. The area is 491.2 thousand square meters. km

Almost a quarter of the territory lies within the Turan lowland, occupied mainly by the Karakum desert . Only in the south is a narrow strip of highlands and medium-high mountains. The southernmost point (and the CIS) is located near the town of Kushka. In the southern part there are the Kopetdag mountains (height up to 2942 m, Rize city); to the north-west of them there are two separate ridges: Maly Balkhan (777 m) and Bolshoi Balkhan (1881 m). A foothill plain adjoins the Kopetdag from the north, which in the west merges with the Caspian low-lying plain. In the southeast, the northern foothills of Paropamiz - the Badkhyz (1267 m) and Karabil (984 m) highlands, separated by the Murgab River - enter Turkmenistan. In the extreme southeast - the spur of the Gissar ridge Kugitangtau (3139 m, the highest point of the republic).

In the west is the Krasnovodsk plateau (308 m), in the northwest - the southern edge of the Ustyurt plateau. To the south of Ustyurt is the Zauzboy folded region, which is a system of cluster flat-topped uplands (Kaplankyr, Chelyunkry, etc.) and depressions separating them. Within the Caspian low-lying plain, the heights of Nebit-Dag (39 m), Boya-Dag (134 m) rise, Kum-Dag, Mongukly (27 m) and others. In the north and northeast of the foothill plain of the Kopetdag, the Karakum Desert stretches, which are divided into central (or low-lying) and Zaunguzian. In the interfluve of the Amu Darya and Tejen, the southeastern Karakum are located. These deserts are characterized by cellular-ridge and hilly semi-overgrown sands; there are areas of dune sands, and in the depressions there are takyrs and sors.

Water resources.

Economic and social development of Turkmenistan; increased consumption of water resources. Turkmenistan is a water-deficient state. For 1 sq. km there is only 0.94 thousand m 3 of water per year (1999 data), while the average water supply to the territory of the CIS is 194 thousand m per year per 1 sq. km. km. The provision of own water resources per capita in the CIS is on average 16.6 thousand cubic meters. m per year, while in Turkmenistan this figure does not exceed 0.16 thousand cubic meters. m per year (i.e., more than 100 times lower than the average level of the CIS countries). The arid climate, low mountains, located parallel to the humid air currents, determine the extreme scarcity of water resources in Turkmenistan in comparison with other Central Asian states.

In the west, Turkmenistan is washed by the waters of the Caspian Sea, which stretches from north to south for almost 1200 km, the average width is 320 sq. km, area - approx. 380 thousand sq. km, the volume of water is 78 thousand cubic meters. km. Coastline length - approx. 7 thousand km, average water salinity - 12.8%. The level of the Caspian Sea is 28.3 m below the level of the World Ocean (data from 1980), the maximum depth is 1025 m, but it is subject to significant long-term fluctuations. In the 20th century. the water level dropped by more than 2 m. To slow down the further drop in sea level (by an average of 1.5–2.0 cm per year), a dam was built in 1980 between the Caspian Sea and the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay.

Climate

sharply continental, arid, with large annual and daily temperature ranges, low air humidity, high evaporation and little precipitation.

In general, the climate is characterized by extreme instability in the cold half of the year and relatively stable hot and dry summers, as well as mild and little snow, sometimes cold winters, short wet springs, dry autumn. The average January temperature is from –5 ° С in the northeast to + 4 ° С in the Atrek region; the absolute minimum is –32 ° С in the Tashauz region, –29 ° С in the foothill zone of the Kopetdag and –10.3 ° С in the south of the Caspian Sea coast. The average July temperature is + 28 ° С in the northeast and + 32 ° С in the south; the absolute maximum is + 49.9 ° C. The average annual precipitation is about 80 mm in the middle reaches of the Amu Darya, 150 mm in the Karakum Desert, 200–300 mm in the foothills and intermountain valleys, and over 400 mm in the mountains. The plains are characterized by hot dry winds and dust storms.

The snow cover is unstable, usually lasts for several days (in the northern regions and mountains). Winds are constant, north-east, north, north-west prevail; in the foothills of the Kopetdag, a dry hot wind blows in summer garmsil. The growing season is 200-270 days.

Soils.

Within Turkmenistan, there are 10 districts, united into 3 groups. Mountain and foothill: 1) Big and Small Balkhansky, 2) Kopetdag, 3) Paropamizsky - Badkhyz and Karabil, 4) Kugitangsky, 5) Krasnovodsky and Zauzboysky, which have a highly dissected erosional-tectonic relief. The mountains (Kopetdag, Kugitangtau, etc.) are characterized by high seismicity. Structural elevated plains - Ustyurt plateau and Zaunguz Karakum. Ustyurt is characterized by desert flat-topped uplands - kyrs with gray-brown desert soils; semi-shrub solyanka (tetir, biyurgun) and wormwood predominate. The surface of the raised alluvial plain of the Zaunguzya is dissected by ridges (30–60 m), sandy desert soils and rarely takyrs are developed in the inter-ridge depressions. Denudation drainless depressions are widespread (Akchakaya and others). In the Zaunguz region - psammophytes with ephemeroid forbs (mainly sedge-silt) and ephemera; from shrubs - saxaul, kandym, borjak, cherkez.

Low-lying plains: 1) Caspian or West-Turkmen lowlands, 2) Low-lying Karakum, 3) valleys and deltas of the Amu Darya, Murgab, Tejen rivers, as well as oases - over a large area in a desert climate, they are subject to intense wind erosion, which has created various forms of aeolian relief (ridge, ridge-cellular and hilly-ridge sands; in the East and Far West, a significant place is occupied by dune sands). In river valleys and deltas, alluvial (floodplain) meadow and meadow-takyr-like soils are widespread, and near-oasis sands are widespread. The landscape of river valleys and deltas as a whole has been artificially transformed and is a typical example of a cultural landscape. It is here that the main areas of cotton growing, melon growing and horticulture of Turkmenistan are located.

Geological structure and minerals.

The territory of Turkmenistan is part of the Mediterranean geosynclinal belt and occupies part of two large tectonic elements - the Epipaleozoic Turan plate and the Alpine folded region.

Vegetable world.

The desert lowlands and foothills of the Kopetdag are characterized by semi-shrub vegetation - southern and gray wormwood and ephemeral forbs. On the foothill plain, in the foothills of the Kopetdag, on Karabil and Badkhyz, ephemeral herbaceous vegetation (bulbous bluegrass, desert sedge, ferula) and ephemera are widespread. In the upper and middle belts of mountains (from 1000 m and above), on mountain plateaus and gentle slopes, one can see feather-grass and wheatgrass steppes; at altitudes over 1500 m juniper stands are found. The gorges of the Western Kopetdag are rich in wild fruit trees and shrubs (grapes, apple trees, hawthorns, cherry plums, almonds, pomegranates, walnuts, figs, pistachio). On Badkhyz there is a woodland of pistachios. Most of the desert is used (if grass grows) as year-round pastures.

The flora of Turkmenistan includes many endemic species. The richness of the flora can be judged by the fact that only in the Kopetdag there are 2 thousand species of higher plants, and in deserts and low mountains - at least 1 thousand. Genetically, all this flora has close ties with the Mediterranean, the Middle and Near East.

In low mountains, ephemeral communities on gray soils are common, sometimes very peculiar, for example, sparse thickets of tall (up to 2.5–3 m) umbrella grasses (ferula, dorema). The background for them is made up of ephemeral low grasses (sedge, bluegrass, poppies, etc.). In summer, the view changes dramatically.

In the lower parts of the mountain slopes on dark gray soils, communities of large-grain ephemeroids (wheatgrass, regneria, bonfire) are widespread, which are sometimes called steppe and which burn out by summer. Above 900–1000 m, there is a belt of wormwood deserts on light brown soils.

Successful experiments on the creation of pistachio forests were carried out on the Badkhyz Upland and in a number of other mountainous regions. There is reason to believe that this tree species existed there before, but was destroyed as a result of centuries of grazing on the slopes. Pistachio harvesting is both an important aid in the diet of the local population and as a commodity supply to the market.

A special place is occupied by the so-called. tugai - thickets of poplar, oak, white willow, comb, giant grasses and other moisture-loving plants along the banks of the Amu Darya and Murghab.

In the oases, cotton, alfalfa, melons and horticultural crops are grown, as well as grapes.

Animal world.

Animals are well adapted to live in deserts. Many of them are nocturnal, some can go without water for a long time and are distinguished by their ability to run quickly over long distances. The country has 91 species of mammals, 372 species of birds, 74 species of reptiles and about 60 species of fish. Among large mammals such animals as gazelle, argali, jackal, wolf, sand cat, steppe cat, corsac fox should be noted; from rodents - gerbils, ground squirrels and jerboas; from reptiles - agamas, monitor lizards, efa, gyurza, arrow snake, steppe boa constrictor, cobra, steppe turtle; from birds - saxaul jay, larks, desert raven, sparrows; invertebrates - beetles, scorpions, karakurt spider, phalanx.

There are Krasnovodsk reserve, Badkhyz reserve, Repetek reserve in Turkmenistan.

POPULATION

Demography.

The population of Turkmenistan as of the beginning of 2005 reached approximately 6 million people (extrapolation of the 1995 census data, taking into account the official growth rate of the country's population). According to the 1995 census, the country's population was almost 4.5 million. (attempts to conduct a selective population census in 2004 were unsuccessful). The overall growth of the country's population is reflected in table. 1.

Table # 1. COUNTRY POPULATION

Table 1. POPULATION OF THE COUNTRY BY CENSUS*
Year	Population, thousand people	Including:		% Of the total population
Year	Population, thousand people	urban	rural	urban	rural
1913 (census)	1,042	117	925	11	89
1926 (census)	0,998	137	861	14	86
1939 (census)	1,252	416	836	33	67
1959 (census)	1,516	700	816	46	54
1970 (census)	2,159	1034	1125	48	52
1979 (census)	2,759	1,323	1,436	48	52
1989 (census)	3,622	1,811	1,847	47	51
1995 (census)	4,481	2,061	2,420	46	54
2000	5.2 million people	2,4	2,8	46	54
2005	6.0 million people	2,8	3,2	47	53
* Source: Census data of Turkmenistan, information from the "National Institute of State Statistics and Information of Turkmenistan", extrapolation calculations of the author.

When considering any statistical data on Turkmenistan (including demography), it should be borne in mind that they are imperfect. Turkmenistan provides limited statistics to the UN and does not provide statistics to the relevant CIS committee.

According to official data from the 1995 census, the crude birth rate was 28.3 (per 1000 people) and fell to 18.5 by 2000. The death rate was 7 in 1995 and decreased to 5.4 by 2000. The number of marriages in 1995-2000 fell from 7. 4 to 5.7 per 1000 people; accordingly, the number of divorces decreased from 1.3 to 1.1. The average life expectancy is 52 years (according to the website of the RosBusinessConsulting company). However, according to official figures from the government of Turkmenistan, it reaches 67 years.

Ethnic composition.

Based on the 1995 census, as well as taking into account the growing migration of ethnic Russians from Turkmenistan, the bulk of the population as of the beginning of 2005 were Turkmen - 81% of the total population, Uzbeks - 9%, Russians - 3.5%, Kazakhs - 1.9%. Azerbaijanis - 0.8%, Tatars - 0.8%, Baluchis - 0.8%, Armenians - 0.7%, Ukrainians - 0.3%, others - 1.2%.

Cities.

The capital of Turkmenistan is Ashgabat (in the national transcription - Ashgabat). According to official data, 678 thousand people lived in the capital by 2005 (for comparison, according to the 1989 census - 407 thousand people), in Turkmenabat (former Chardzhou, Lebap velayat) there were 178 thousand people, in Dashoguz (former Tashauz, Dashoguz velayat) - 121 thousand people, in Marah (Mary velayat) - 100 thousand people, in Balkanabat (former Nebit-Dag, Lebap velayat) - 95 thousand people, in Turkmenbashi (former Krasnovodsk, Balkan velayat) - 68 thousand people. people

Religion.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Central Asian Spiritual Administration, which previously exercised control over religious life, was transformed into the Islamic Religious Council of Central Asia, and each qazi received almost complete freedom of action. After the proclamation of independence of Turkmenistan, the leadership declared the country a secular state, and the qazi received the right to decide all matters related to religion, provided that he "maintains a working relationship with the Ministry of Justice."

Muslims (mostly Sunni) make up approximately 89% of the country's population, Christians (overwhelmingly Orthodox) - 9%, other confessions - 2%. In everyday life, religious norms and traditions are strictly adhered to by an insignificant part of the population. The prevalence of Islam and the activity of imams and mullahs and, first of all, the heads of the Muslims of Turkmenistan, are under the personal strict control of the president of the country.

Language.

In accordance with the constitution of Turkmenistan, the official state language is Turkmen. Almost the entire population speaks Russian, which is the language of interethnic communication. Since 1999, Turkmenistan has been curtailing the spread of the Russian language and the Russian-language information space (the closure of Russian-language schools, universities, translation from January 1, 2000 of office work into the Turkmen language, non-recognition of Soviet and Russian diplomas issued over the past 10 years, a ban on extracts of newspapers from Russia , broadcasting of Russian-language radio stations, etc.

PUBLIC STRUCTURE AND POLITICS

Political system.

There is a presidential rule in Turkmenistan. The first secretary of the former Communist Party of the USSR, Saparmurat Niyazov (who has the title of "Turkmenbashi" - the leader of the Turkmen), took over the presidency of the country following the elections on June 21, 1992. After a referendum on January 15, 1994, his presidential powers were extended until 2002, but in December 1999, at a joint meeting of the country's main legislative body, the Khalk Maslahaty (People's Council), the Council of Elders and the national revival movement Galkynysh, he received the powers of an indefinite presidency. which ended in 2006 with the death of Niyazov.

Saparmurat Niyazov simultaneously served as prime minister and supreme commander in chief of the country.

According to the constitution, the highest representative body of the people's power is the Khalk Maslahaty (People's Council) of Turkmenistan. It consists of: the president; deputies of the Mejlis; khalk vekilleri, elected by the people, one from each etrap (district); Chairman of the Supreme Court, Chairman of the Supreme Economic Court, Prosecutor General, Cabinet members, heads of administration of velayats (oblasts), archyns (mayors of municipal councils), shakers (cities), as well as settlements that are the administrative centers of etraps.

The Mejlis (Parliament) is the legislative body of Turkmenistan. It consists of 50 deputies, elected from territorial constituencies with approximately equal numbers of voters for a five-year term.

In 2005 S. Niyazov announced for the first time a program of democratic reforms of the country's political system, including a gradual transition to a multi-party system. At the first stage, starting in 2007, elections were held for khyakims (chairmen) at all levels, primarily in velayats (oblasts), etraps (districts) and shahrs (cities).

Regional and local government.

Local executive power is exercised by: in 5 velayats (regions) - velayat khyakimi (Akhalk, Balkan, Dashoguz, Lebap, Mary velayats); in shahrs (cities) - shaher khyakims; in etraps (districts) - khyakimi etraps, archyny.

The khyakims are representatives of the head of state in the localities, they are appointed and dismissed by the president and are accountable to him.

The khyakims supervise the activities of local government bodies, ensure the implementation of the constitution, laws, acts of the president and the cabinet of ministers, as well as other higher bodies.

The judicial system.

Judicial power in Turkmenistan is exercised by the supreme kazyet (court) and other kazyets provided for by the law of the country. the chairman of the supreme kazyet reports to the khalk maslahaty and the president on the activities of the judicial system. Judges at all levels are appointed by the President for a term of five years.

Supervision over the observance of laws, legal acts of the President by state administration bodies, the administration of the Armed Forces, local self-government, participants in production, economic and commercial activities, organizations and institutions, public associations, officials and citizens shall be entrusted to the Prosecutor General and prosecutors subordinate to him.

Both the chairman of the Supreme Court and the Prosecutor General sit in the People's Council of the Khala Maslakhaty. The competence of the khalk maslakhaty includes the revision of the Constitution and the introduction of amendments to it. As a consequence, the protection of fundamental rights established by the prohibition of the transfer of legislative functions of parliament in the area of criminal law and justice can be circumvented by simply changing the constitution by the power of the people's council. The country lacks a constitutional court and legal mechanisms that establish the observance of the supremacy of international law over the domestic legislation of the country and ensure that laws are brought in accordance with the constitution.

Military establishment.

The number of armed forces is approximately 100 thousand people (2005). According to official figures, defense spending amounts to almost $ 100 million (approximately 3.4% of GDP).

The armed forces are equipped with MiG-29 fighters, Su-25 attack aircraft, Mi-24 and Mi-8 helicopters, Shilka self-propelled anti-aircraft guns, S-60 anti-aircraft artillery systems, OSA and Strela-2 anti-aircraft missile systems , tanks of various types, infantry fighting vehicles, some other types of weapons. About 300 were inherited from the USSR.

The land units of the Turkmen army - 600 T-72 tanks, more than 1000 infantry fighting vehicles and armored personnel carriers and about 500 pieces of artillery with a caliber of over 100 mm.

Turkmenistan has a 2,000-strong navy that is subordinate to the command of the border troops.

At the first stage after gaining independence, the army functioned according to the Soviet model, using weapons inherited from the USSR and military equipment... Then, the concept of building up the armed forces was based first on the neutral status of Turkmenistan, and after 2002 - on the need for large-scale involvement of servicemen in work in the national economy. In the armed forces, specialized units began to be created to work in various sectors of the economy and the service sector, primarily at construction sites, in villages, and medical institutions. It is believed that during the two-year service, soldiers will be able to master and work in a civilian profession after demobilization. In the spring of 2002, the age limit for conscription was lowered to 17 years.

Despite the proclaimed neutral status of Turkmenistan, the army is equipped with modern types of weapons, primarily the Air Force and Navy in the Caspian Sea. Georgia modernized 43 military aircraft and 8 helicopters for Turkmenistan (including 22 Su-25 attack aircraft for more than $ 22 million); in addition, Turkmenistan acquired two new combat aircraft from Georgia.

The newest Kolchuga radar stations were purchased from Ukraine, capable of detecting surface, air and ground targets imperceptibly for enemy tracking equipment. Turkmenistan is the only CIS country that has not signed an agreement on measures to control the proliferation of portable Igla and Strela anti-aircraft missile systems in the Commonwealth countries.

Since 2002, dozens of new patrol boats purchased from Ukraine, mainly Kalkan-M and Grif-T, have entered service with the coast guard forces in the Caspian. In 2003, Iran gave seven coast guard boats and one destroyer on a long-term lease to Turkmenistan on very favorable terms.

Foreign policy.

The foreign policy of Turkmenistan is determined by its neutral status (since December 1995), huge reserves of natural gas and the desire to maximize its exports, a significant change in the geopolitical situation in Central Asia after the defeat of the Taliban and the arrival of American troops in the region, the unresolved issue of the legal status of the Caspian Relations of Turkmenistan with the CIS countries are based on the concept of the minimum development of multilateral relations with the maximum expansion of bilateral ties). This applies to participation in any multilateral unions, blocs, organizations, etc., due to their neutral status. Within the framework of the CIS, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan prevail in bilateral relations. Ashgabat is actively using the opportunities provided by the Commonwealth for regular contacts at the highest and other levels, as well as for tracking trends in interstate relations of the CIS countries. The development of the fuel and energy complex of Turkmenistan and the export of hydrocarbons are at the forefront of bilateral relations. This is what makes Ashgabat maintain friendly relations with Russia and Ukraine.

The most complicated relations are observed between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Despite the signing of a border delimitation treaty in 2001, tensions persist there. There were repeated shelling of the Uzbek civilian population, who were heading to visit (with observance of all formalities) relatives or visit their graves.

A similarly complex relationship exists between Ashgabat and Baku, based on a dispute over the ownership of three oil fields in the Caspian. It is the conflict of these two countries that is one of the obstacles to the settlement legal status Caspian.

Turkmenistan maintains the most good-neighborly relations with Turkey. Both sides regard them as lying in the mainstream of a long-term strategic partnership. On the overwhelming majority of international issues, these countries act as a united front, and the legal basis of bilateral relations is based on more than 60 treaties and agreements covering almost all aspects of bilateral relations. The main area of cooperation is the economy: the trade turnover of the two countries in 2003 exceeded $ 600 million. Almost 350 Turkish firms and companies operate in the country, about 20 thousand Turkish entrepreneurs work on a permanent basis. Close cooperation has been established between the military departments and special services of the two states.

Relations between Turkmenistan and Iran should be regarded as very promising. Based to a large extent on stable supplies of Turkmen gas to Iran via the Korpeje - Kurt-Kui gas pipeline (since 1997) and foreign trade relations, they contribute to regular contacts at the highest level, as well as the further expansion of foreign economic ties. A wide variety of Iranian goods can be found in the Turkmen markets.

Foreign policy ties of Turkmenistan with the West are focused mainly on the United States. This is due to Washington's significant influence on the political situation in the Central Asian region (including the activity of American troops there); the possibility of obtaining financial support from the United States in relation to gas exports, as well as investment in the Turkmen fuel and energy complex and the hope of Ashgabat to receive moral support in its confrontation with Tashkent and Baku. As for the United States, for them Turkmenistan has become a kind of a pivotal point of diplomacy, from which the situation in Iran (especially taking into account the implementation of Tehran's nuclear program), Turkey, the Transcaucasian states, and the country of Central Asia is well traced.

The relations of Turkmenistan with the states of the European Union are built almost entirely on the basis of mutual interest in gas supplies, as well as the desire of Ashgabat to attract investments from European countries in its economy, which, in general, is being done, although the process is rather slow. Here Europe is more conservative than the United States and more discontent with human rights violations in Turkmenistan.

Political parties.

There is only one political party in Turkmenistan, the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan, which is the former Communist Party of Turkmenistan. It is headed by the first secretary of the communist party of the republic, Saparmurat Niyazov, who came to his party post in 1985. Attempts to create the Agrarian Party of Turkmenistan in 1992 failed.

The activity of the national movement of revival "Galkynysh" is allowed in the country.

Any opposition activity within the country is prosecuted by law and suppressed by the security forces.

There are several opposition associations abroad. Among them is the People's Democratic Movement of Turkmenistan (created by B.O.Shikhmuradov, who is currently in prison on charges of attempted assassination of S. Niyazov). There is also the People's Movement "Vatan", created by the former Deputy Prime Minister who emigrated from Turkmenistan, Chairman of the Central Bank of the country of Khudaiberdy Orazov.

The opposition notes the underground functioning of the Communist Party in Turkmenistan, but there is no evidence of this.

ECONOMY

Labor resources.

According to the official Turkmen statistics, the economically active population as of January 1, 2005 was 3.4 million people. According to the country's leadership, this parameter will reach 4.7 million people by 2010, with an annual growth of labor resources of 5%. Unemployment and underemployment do not exceed, according to official estimates, 5-8%, and the government intends to reduce them to 2% by 2010. However, international independent experts (primarily from the World Bank, IMF, EBRD) believe that unemployment in Turkmenistan is approximately 25%, and in rural areas, where more than half of the total population lives, it exceeds 40%.

The distribution of employment in the leading sectors of the country's economy shows the following picture (official data): agriculture employs about 30% of the economically active population, industry - about 40%, and services - about 30%.

Organization of production.

According to government sources, the public sector of the economy creates about 55% of the gross output; the private sector provides approximately 45% of all manufactured products. At the same time, within the framework of the non-state sector, directly on private sector accounts for almost 3/4 of the total product produced (the rest is public, corporate, mixed sectors). The private sector of the economy occupies the strongest positions in the service sector (primarily in trade), agriculture (mainly cattle breeding, horticulture, vegetable growing, melon growing), and light industry.

As for high technologies, modern equipment (including robots) is widely used in textile production, telecommunications, its use began in gas and oil production (extraction of hydrocarbons at great depths, as well as in depleted fields).

Resources.

The main natural wealth of Turkmenistan is the natural hectare s... Information about its reserves is extremely contradictory. So, according to various estimates, the volume of proven reserves is from 4.7 trillion. cub. m. up to 23 trillion. cub. m. In 2004, according to the National Institute of Statistics and Information, 58.6 cubic meters of gas were produced in the country, of which 42 billion were exported. The most important gas fields, where production has been carried out for over 40 years, are Shatlyk, Achaye, Naip and some others. The richest gas fields as of the beginning of 2005 are Doletabad and Malay.

According to official data, the country's oil reserves are 12 billion tons. The Caspian coastal shelf has been little explored, where oil reserves may amount to 4–5 billion tons. In 2004, 11.8 million tons of oil were produced, of which 6.8 million tons were sent for refining and 5 million tons - for export.

A number of small deposits of fossil coal have been discovered in the Jurassic deposits.

Turkmenistan is rich in mineral salt deposits , among which the main ones are chlorides (there are also potash ones) - the Kara-Bogaz-Gol bay - and sulfates (a group of anhydrite, gypsum, mirabilite and others). In the Western Kopetdag there are ore occurrences of barite, witherite, fluorite, mercury , however, they do not yet have industrial significance. There are also insignificant reserves of polymetals (in the Kugitang mountains), containing mainly lead and zinc. Of non-metallic minerals, there are industrial reserves of sulfur, bentonite, ozokerite, granite, limestone, Glauber's salt, ornamental stone, building materials (including cement raw materials and raw materials for glass production - quartz sandstone).

Among the valuable minerals of Turkmenistan are drinking, industrial, iodine-bromine and mineral medicinal waters. New sources of fresh water have been discovered in the Karakum Desert at depths of 50–240 m.

Gross domestic product.

According to official data, the sectoral structure of GDP is characterized by the following figures - agriculture creates about 25%, industry - about 45% and services - 30%. There are no statistics at the stage of distribution and use of GDP.

Officially, the rate of economic growth of GDP in 1999 was 16%, 2000 - almost 18%, 2001-2002 - about 20%, in 2003 - almost 17% and in 2004 - over 21%. According to our estimates, GDP growth has fluctuated in recent years at the level of 5-7% on average per year.

According to calculations, data on per capita income based on official statistics show that based on the banking rate of manat 5,200 manat per 1 US dollar, GDP per capita in 2002 was less than 1 thousand dollars. If we proceed from a more real market rate - 22,000 manats for 1 amer. dollars - the GDP per capita does not exceed 250 dollars. Some experts believe that the real income per capita in 2005 is about 100 dollars (calculated in purchasing power parity).

Industry.

This sphere of the national economy is the leading branch of the economy of Turkmenistan, it creates about 45% of GDP, and within its framework, the main component is the oil and gas complex. The production of oil and gas and the export of the latter ensure the country's economic growth and are the leading source of foreign exchange in the country (the export of raw cotton and oil plays a secondary role).

The decision to resume gas exports at the end of 1999 allowed Turkmenistan to get out of the economic crisis and in 2000 to reach a production level of about 50 billion cubic meters. Mostly Turkmen gas is sent through Russia to Ukraine (34 billion cubic meters in 2002, 36 billion cubic meters in subsequent years up to 2007, when Russian purchases will noticeably increase).

Russia buys Turkmen gas directly for itself in small quantities - about 5 billion cubic meters. m in 2004 and about 10 billion cubic meters. m in 2005-2006 at a price of $ 44 per 1,000 cubic meters. However, in the future, in accordance with the agreement signed in 2003 between Turkmenistan and the Russian Federation on the import of Turkmen gas for a period of 25 years, Russia will increase its purchases to 70-80 billion cubic meters. m and will "choose" the entire volume of gas supplied to the north. The export of Turkmen gas to Iran via the Korpeje-Kurt-Kui gas pipeline will continue, but it will not exceed 13 billion cubic meters. m annually.

The growth in oil production (about 12 million tons in 2004) has a positive effect on the state of the country's economy and an increase in export potential (at least 1/3 of the oil produced is exported). The bulk of the oil is processed at two oil refineries - in Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk) and Seidi. The capacity of the first refinery is about 6 million tons of oil per year; - about 1 million tons. The modernization of these refineries carried out in recent years with the help of firms from Japan, Germany, France, Austria, Israel and others has made it possible to improve the quality of the processed hydrocarbons and transfer the country's vehicles to high-octane AI-95 and AI-98 gasoline and high-quality diesel fuel.

The Caspian shelf is very promising from the point of view of hydrocarbon production, despite the fact that their cost is higher here than in the development of onshore fields; this is evidenced by the activities of the Anglo-Arab company "Dragon Oil" over the past 10 years. But these works are hindered by two acute problems - the unsettled status of the Caspian Sea and disagreements between Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan on the ownership of 3 offshore oil fields.

The second most important sphere of industrial production is light industry, primarily the textile industry, which is due to an increase in the collection of raw cotton and an increase in world market demand for goods of the cotton group. About 60 thousand tons of cotton yarn are produced, about 70 million sq. m of cotton fabrics, about 25 million pieces. knitwear. The products of the textile industry belong to a small category of Turkmen goods, which are in stable demand domestically and abroad - denim and products from it are sold well in Europe. Foreign capital (especially Turkish) willingly goes into this industry, where modern production facilities are created using advanced technologies, up to robots.

Other industries play a subordinate role in the country's economy, a subordinate role. Only construction and production of building materials have a certain weight in the national economy and show relatively high growth rates - 6-8% on average per year. The food industry, petrochemistry, mechanical engineering and metalworking, the electrical industry, etc. follow in the descending order.

Agriculture.

The agricultural sector is in second (after industry) place in the economy of Turkmenistan (about 25% of GDP is generated there).

Within this industry, the leading place is taken by cotton growing; the sale of raw cotton abroad, along with gas, is an important source of foreign exchange earnings. The main part of arable land, the area of which exceeds 800 thousand hectares, is used for growing cotton. According to unofficial data, the cotton harvest in 2004 did not exceed 0.5 million tons, while the plan was 2.2 million tons; similarly, in 2000-2004, on the whole, the plan was fulfilled by no more than 30%. High-quality cotton sorts accounted for about 25% of the total harvest of this crop. The monoculture of agriculture (focusing mainly on cotton growing) leads to socio-economic problems associated with salinization and waterlogging of the soil due to the need for abundant irrigation of cotton crops, as well as as a result of attracting the country's population (schoolchildren, students, conscripts, etc.) to picking cotton.

The main crops are wheat, barley, corn, rice, dzhugara (sorghum). According to preliminary data, the wheat harvest in 2004 was 1.4 million tons (1.7 million tons in 2000). The main grain-growing region is the Akhal velayat, where about 40% of all grain crops in the republic are concentrated (the total area of arable land for grain crops in the country is about 150 thousand hectares). The rice harvest reached about 35 thousand tons in 2004 (32 thousand tons in 2000). Almost all sown areas of this crop are concentrated in the farms of Lebap and Dashoguz velayats.

It should be emphasized that private producers of strategically important types of products - cotton and food grains - receive preferential loans from the state, are exempt from paying taxes, the government pays 50% of their costs for seeds, chemicals, mineral fertilizers, and various technical services.

5 types of forage crops are cultivated: forage grasses - alfalfa, Sudanese grass, vetch, perco, rape; silage - corn (for grain), sorghum (dzhugara); fodder melons - fodder watermelon, pumpkin, zucchini; root crops - sugar and semi-sugar beets; grain fodder crops - winter barley and rye.

Melon growing in Turkmenistan is an important and oldest branch of agriculture. Melons include watermelons, melons, pumpkin. The assortment of melons includes more than 200 types, different in terms of ripening, transportability, shapes and sizes of fruits.

The sown area of melons and gourds in 2004 amounted to 26 thousand hectares, the gross harvest of melons and gourds - 229 thousand tons. Melon growing is developed primarily in Lebap and Dashoguz velayats. They account for more than half of the melons produced. To increase the yield and gross yield of melons and gourds, selection and seed-growing work is being carried out, modern technology is being introduced. Not less than a third of the gross yield of melons and gourds is exported.

Horticulture is also one of the important branches of agriculture in Turkmenistan. The main fruit crops include apple, pear, quince, apricot, peach, plum, cherry plum, stone fruit, walnuts and pistachios (from nuts), figs, olives, mulberries, pomegranates, almonds and lemon. The most common crops are apple (44%), apricot (19%), plum (8%), pear (6%), pomegranate (5.5%), peach (4%), all other types of fruit make up 13.5% ... In 2004, the area under fruit crops was 23.5 thousand hectares, the gross harvest was about 60 thousand tons.

Vegetable growing is widespread primarily in the Akhal velayat. The most common vegetable crops are tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, cabbage, peppers, eggplants, radishes, and radishes. In 2004, the area under vegetable crops was about 25 thousand hectares, the gross harvest reached 350 thousand tons.

Viticulture is an important component of the republic's agro-industrial complex, which provides the population with fresh and dried grapes, and is also a raw material for the wine and canning industry. The collections are annually on average 200 thousand tons.

Livestock is the second most important area of agricultural production after agriculture. Astrakhan breeding (karakul skins exported to the world market and used in the national fur industry of the country), fine-fleece sheep breeding, camel breeding, pig breeding, poultry breeding, horse breeding (breeding of the world famous Akhal-Teke breed horses), silkworm breeding, beekeeping, fish farming are developed.

Meat production in the country at the beginning of this millennium ranges from 280-300 thousand tons, milk - about 980 thousand tons, eggs - 370 million pieces.

Energy.

According to official data, in 2004 the country generated almost 15 billion kWh 018 · hour of electricity, of which about 5 billion kWh was exported (to Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan, a number of Central Asian states). The main suppliers of electricity in the country are Maryskaya GRES, Abadanskaya and Balkanabatskaya power plants. For over 10 years, Turkmenistan has been actively cooperating with the American General Electric and Turkish Chalyk Energy in expanding the capacities of these power plants. The network of power transmission lines is expanding - the construction of the strategic line Mary - Ashgabat - Balkanabat (220 kW) is nearing completion, which will reduce the number of accidents in the capital's power supply system and reduce power surges.

Transport and communications.

The transport system of the country is based on road transport, the functioning of which is closely related to the construction of bridges on the Amu Darya. According to official data, in 2000 the volume of road freight traffic amounted to 408 million tons, 10 million tons were transported by rail, 1.7 million tons by inland waterways, 161 thousand tons by sea and 11 thousand tons by air. Passenger traffic in the same year amounted to: by road - 842 million people, by rail - 2,629 thousand people, by air - 1,293 thousand people and by sea - 11 thousand people.

Highways connecting the main cities of the country (Ashgabat - Turkmenbashi, Ashgabat - Mary - Turkmenbat, Ashgabat - Karakum - Dashoguz, Turkmenbashi - Dashoguz and some others) correspond to the international level of highways and belong to the roads of the first technical category: a six-lane road with a dividing strip and a width carriageway on each side 12.25 meters.

Of great importance is the construction of a part of the North-South transport corridor on the territory of Turkmenistan, first of all, the Yeralievo - Turkmenbashi - Kazandzhik - Kyzylatrek - state border railway with an exit to the Iranian railway network. This will make it possible to form a new route between Europe, Russia, Kazakhstan and Iran and to reduce the delivery time of goods by at least half. The important role of the current international lines- 280-kilometer railway line Tejen - Serakhs - Mashhad (Iran), called the "golden link" of the Trans-Asian Railway and which in its essence became the Great Silk Road in its modern version, as well as the 200-kilometer railway Turkmenabat - Atamurat, connecting five eastern regions Turkmenistan. In the future, this branch will become a link in the future highway Turkmenistan - Afghanistan - Pakistan - India.

The sea transport is oriented towards the port in Turkmenbashi, which has been reconstructed by Turkish specialists. Industrial and agricultural equipment, motor vehicles, metal products, and mineral fertilizers are delivered to Turkmenistan across the Caspian Sea. Oil, coke and other oil products, chemical and other products of local producers are shipped through this port. An increasing role in infrastructure is played by the ferry service between the city of Turkmenbashi and the Russian port of Olya near Astrakhan: both ports are becoming strategically important in the Europe-Caucasus-Asia transport corridor.

The main directions of development of communication facilities are the reconstruction of existing and construction of new networks, the opening of new international channels, the transfer of existing switching systems from analog to digital. The leading source of revenues from public communication systems is the sale of services to the population (according to 2000 data, out of a total amount of 237 billion manats under this item, the budget received 74 billion manats). The first stage of modernization of the telephone network has been completed in the capital, which made it possible to provide telephone communication to approximately 70% of the population of Ashgabat. The number of subscribers to cellular and paging communications is gradually increasing, although they still remain inaccessible to the general population of the country due to their high cost.

International trade.

From the very beginning of the independent development of Turkmenistan, its policy in the field of foreign economic relations was guided by the maximum departure from Russia as a "big brother" while simultaneously expanding independent foreign trade relations. This was determined by the objective necessity of gas supplies via the Central Asia - Center gas pipelines. In parallel, a policy of expanding regional ties was (and is) being pursued, primarily with Turkey and Iran, and to some extent with the Central Asian states. Foreign economic contacts with Western countries, including the United States, are gradually developing.

According to official data, foreign trade turnover in 2004 amounted to $ 6.8 billion; at the same time, exports reached almost 4.4 billion, and imports were at the level of 2.4 billion.

Gas occupies the main place in the commodity structure of exports. In second place are oil and oil products, as well as electricity. Further (depending on the situation on the world market) there are goods of the cotton group - raw cotton, cotton yarn, cotton fabrics and finished cotton products. Carpets and rugs, leather and leather products, silk, horses of noble breeds, vegetables and fruits, fish, black caviar, and some other food products are also exported.

It should be emphasized that Turkmenistan deliberately relies on gas exports, since this is what gives it the opportunity to receive significant foreign exchange funds to pay for imports and develop and diversify the economy.

Export is carried out to more than 50 countries of the world, however, the leading position is almost invariably occupied by Ukraine (gas purchases) - more than half of the total export volume. Iran is in second place with an average of 20% of Turkmen exports, and Italy is in third place with 10-15%. They are followed by Turkey and Russia. Others are located behind these countries, although the overall geographic structure of Turkmenistan's exports is very mobile, and the positions of the countries change from year to year. Therefore, for example, it is quite likely that in connection with the signed Russian-Turkmen Agreement on gas supplies to the Russian Federation until 2028, Russia, starting from 2007, will come out on top as a foreign trade partner of Turkmenistan.

Among the imported goods, production and technical products dominate, about 80% of the total volume of imports - machinery and equipment (for the oil and gas industry, textile complexes, electricity, construction, etc.), means of transport, metal and metal structures (Turkmenistan has just begun to think about creating its own metallurgical base, although there are almost no real opportunities for this), products of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, coal, timber, other raw materials, chemicals, medicines, industrial consumer goods, etc.

The geographical structure of imports of Turkmenistan (there are connections with almost 80 countries of the world) differs from exports - here in recent years Germany has been in first place, whose share reaches almost 20%. This is followed by Ukraine and Russia (about 15% each), Turkey, Iran, USA, Japan, UAE, etc.

The state budget.

Government finance statistics in recent years (as, indeed, many other statistics) are missing, so experts use information for 2000, especially since the structure of the state budget has changed insignificantly in recent years.

In 2002, the total expenditures amounted to 29.1 trillion. manats, and revenues - 28.6 trillion, which meant a budget deficit of about 500 million manats. The main source of financing of budget expenditures in 2000 is the means of state funds and complexes. So, 12 trillion. manat of the budget revenues accounted for deductions from oil and gas enterprises, first of all - Turkmenneftegaz, Turkmengaz, Turkmenneft, the Ministry of Energy and Industry of Turkmenistan, etc. - their total amount was 4.4 trillion. manat.

The general economic strategy of budgetary policy is aimed primarily at increasing the level of tax collection. However, there have been no significant changes in tax policy.

An analysis of the revenue side of the state budget indicates a low level of the tax base of Turkmenistan: of the total revenue of 28.6 trillion. manat income tax, which in advanced economies is the basis of budget revenues, provides an amount of only 0.85 trillion. (3%). Much more revenue was brought by only one value-added tax - 1.6 trillion. manat.

The structure of the expenditure side of the budget for 2000 testifies to the gradual strengthening of its social orientation. So, for example, with an increase in budgetary expenditures compared to 1999 by 64%, social spending increased by 79% (allocations for a 2-fold increase in public sector wages, pensions, scholarships and various benefits). In total, 4.3 trillion rubles were spent on the social sphere. manat or 15% of the total expenses.

The main expenditure part of the budget is the costs of various state funds and complexes, a total of 22.7 trillion. manat. This type of cost is at the same time income from the activities of enterprises that are under the jurisdiction of such funds and complexes.

Among other types of official budget expenditures, direct expenditures on the development of the national economy (agro-industrial complex, transport and communications, construction, centralized capital investments, etc.) should be noted - a total of 787 billion manats; for defense and border protection - 600 billion; external debt service - 30 billion manats.

The analysis of the budget carried out by the IMF experts from the point of view of the need to pay off the external debt (and it is, according to various estimates of international financial institutions, from 1.7 to 2.6 billion dollars) shows that in 2000 the expenditures under this item should have been at least 380 million dollars (286 million - payments of the debt itself and 96 million - interest on it). It seems that by underestimating the level of costs for servicing external debt in government ministries and departments, the government of Turkmenistan is trying to emphasize the low overall size of external debt, a favorable situation in the national economy and increase the country's attractiveness for foreign investors.

The budget deficit of about 500 million manats is expected to be covered by interest-free loans from the Central Bank of Turkmenistan.

Banking system.

By the beginning of 2004, there were 12 banks in Turkmenistan. According to experts of the Standard & Poor's banking rating structure, the state's share in the banking sector was over 96%; total assets of the banking system - $ 3.327 million, total deposits in the system exceeded $ 500 million; total net profit of the banking system countries reached $ 23 million.

The leading place is occupied by the Central Bank of Turkmenistan, which has the right to issue money.

Turkmenistan differs from other CIS countries by a high degree of market concentration in the banking sector, where the two largest state-owned banks. The State Bank for Foreign Economic Affairs and Daihanbank own approximately 80% of all assets of the banking system.

Turkmenistan (as well as Russia, Uzbekistan and Belarus) is reluctant to privatize large banks with state participation. The predominance of state ownership of banks enables the government to influence the lending decision-making process, which has a detrimental effect on the quality of assets and the efficiency of the banking system.

Turkish banks - Kocbank and T.C. Ziraat Bankasi A.S. are actively operating in the country, having stable ratings by Standard & Poor "s. There are branches of Iranian and Pakistani banks.

The activity of the banking sector of Turkmenistan reflects the high degree of dependence of the country's economic growth on gas exports. As a result, the national economy of Turkmenistan, characterized by a poorly diversified industry and based largely on the extraction of mineral raw materials and agriculture, is subject to sectoral risks and depends on the cyclical factor.

Monetary system.

The monetary unit of Turkmenistan, the manat, was introduced on November 1, 1993. At the same time, the exchange of Russian rubles for manats began at the rate of 500 rubles per 1 manat. The official exchange rate of the national currency is determined by the Central Bank of the country and invariably amounts to $ 1 = 5.2 manats. The real exchange rate of the manat is regulated by the "black market", where at the beginning of 2005 it was about 24.5 manats per $ 1. There is no information on the size of the money supply in the country, and even more so the excess paper money issue.

Paper banknotes of Turkmenistan were printed in Great Britain. The first shipment entered the country from London on May 7, 1993. The export of more than 50 manats from the republic was prohibited.

In the first years of its existence, the Turkmen manat underwent a significant depreciation. If, when put into circulation in November 1993, its official exchange rate was equal to 500 Russian rubles per 1 manat and 1.99 manats per $ 1, then by mid-1996 the exchange rate had dropped to 55-59 manats per 100 Russian rubles and 2400-2450 manats. for $ 1.

Simultaneously with banknotes in 1993, were introduced into circulation and bargaining chips 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 tenge (1 manat = 100 tenge).

Coins 1, 5 and 10 tenge are made of copper-clad steel (red), 20 and 50 tenge are made of nickel-plated steel (white).

However, due to the high rate of inflation, the circulation of coins has lost its practical meaning.

Tourism.

Turkmenistan is of considerable interest to foreign tourists in terms of the presence of historical monuments, natural monuments, national traditions, folklore, etc.

In ancient times, the “Great Silk Road”, a symbol of the cultural integration of East and West, ran through the territory of modern Turkmenistan. The trade caravan began its movement in Xian, went through India, all of Central Asia and further to the shores of the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The name adopted today "The Great Silk Road" was first given to this route by the German scientist F. Richtofen in 1877 in his work China... A number of large architectural monuments have survived, which in ancient times were the most significant points - stops on the "Great Silk Road". These are the settlements Mashad-Mesrian in Dehistan, Parau near Kizil-Arvat, Shakhrislam in the Bakhardn region, Nisa, Annau, Abiverd, Namazga-Depe, Altyn-Depe near Ashgabat, Serakhs, ancient Merv, Margush, Amul near Turkmenabat, Kunya Blizhench, Shakhsenem Dashoguz.

Various burial architectural complexes over the graves of prominent people are of considerable interest. The undisputed gem is the mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in old Merv; interesting in architectural solution also the Merv ensemble of the 15th century. - the mausoleum of the Askhabs, the companions of the Prophet Muhammad. The mausoleum of Astana-baba in the Lebap velayat deservedly attracts attention, near which you can always meet pilgrims. But perhaps the most interesting monuments of Turkmenistan are located in the city of Keneurgench of the Dashoguz velayat - these are the mausoleums of Il Arslan and Khorezmshah Tekesh (12th century), amazingly beautiful monuments of ancient Khorezm - the mausoleum of Tyurabek-khanym and the majestic 60-meter minaret of Kutlug-Timur, the most highest in Central Asia. The ruins of ancient Dehistan rise on the absolutely flat and waterless plain of the Balkan velayat, the most significant among them is the Shir-Kabir mausoleum. Near Ashgabat, on the outskirts of the village of Bagir, Nisa is located - the ancient capital of the famous Parthian kingdom, which existed for almost 600 years (from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD).

As for the natural monuments, well-preserved fossilized traces of the Upper Jurassic dinosaurs on the western slope of the Kugitan ridge near the village of Khojapilata of the Charshanginsky etrap should be noted. On the surface of limestones with an absolute age of about 140 million years (Jurassic period), approx. 500 dinosaur footprints. The famous Karlyuk caves in Kugitangtau are unique natural monuments. The total length of the passages and galleries of the Khashimoyik cave is 5300 m. There are about 30 of them in the system of Karlyuk caves. Many caves have not yet been explored. In terms of the richness of the decoration, the Karlyuk caves have no equal in Eurasia, and they are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. 6 km north of Cheleken there is a crater lake Pink Porsygel of mud volcanic origin. It is known primarily for the fact that it covers the mouth of the ancient mud volcano pink water.

There are many age-old juniper trees in the Kopetdag. Their average age is 400–500 years. In the only grove in the country, Unabi (Kugitang), the trees are over 200 years old. In the Karakala region, in the Aydere gorge, the famous 500-year-old Shahoz (King of the Nut) grows. On Kugitang, in the Khojaburdjibeland tract, a pistachio grove has been preserved, the trees are 200-250 years old with a trunk thickness of about 1 m. Many single trees have also survived. The patriarch is the 358-year-old plane tree Seven Brothers in the Firyuzin Gorge. In the Kurkulab gorge, near Hermab, there are two century-old plane trees, the thickness of the trunk of one of them at the root collar is about 2 m. In the Central Amu Darya oasis, several centuries-old mulberry trees have survived. The largest among them is Mulberry Seidi with a trunk diameter of about 1.5 m and a crown length of 13 × 18.5 m. It grows near the village of Gultak in the Karabekaul etrap. According to the legend, the Turkmen classic poet Seidi (1775-1836) often rested under this tree. The Badkhyz pistachio savanna with century-old trees is unique in its beauty and uniqueness. Mount Boyadag, whose rocks shimmer in the sun, is known as a kind of museum of nature - there are approx. 40 hot, warm and cold springs with different water composition.

National achievements in art and folklore, as well as the traditions of Turkmen cuisine, also attract attention. The severity and beauty of "gels" - drawings of Turkmen carpets, the pomegranate color of which gradually acquires more and more saturation over the years, has won wide recognition. The Turkmen koshma is often called the carpet's sister, but it is more widespread in everyday life, and its ornaments are not inferior to the symbolism of Turkmen women's jewelry in terms of antiquity. Carnelian and gilded silver are the main features of Turkmen jewelry, which are very diverse in form and practical use.

The peculiarities of the Turkmen national cuisine are primarily associated with the art of baking bread - chorek. The most popular dish in Turkmenistan is pilaf made from lamb, carrots, rice and onions. Lamb shurpa soup with potatoes and tomatoes is also very common. The variety of fruits and vegetables of Turkmenistan should also be noted.

Turkmen wines are also widely known.

The State Committee of Turkmenistan for Tourism and Sports, established in 2000, deals with the development of tourism.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

At the first stage of independent development of Turkmenistan, its education system (primary, secondary and higher) was preserved according to the Soviet model. However, in 1993, President S. Niyazov announced a new policy in this area; first of all she touched high school, where the transition to nine-year education began. (At that time, 860 thousand children studied in schools of Turkmenistan every year, 71 thousand students in technical schools, and 40 thousand students in universities).

To date, the number of students at all levels has decreased by an average of 10 times compared to the beginning of the 90s. The quality of training is negatively affected by the annual work in September-October during the cotton harvest. In general, the new policy in the field of education has led to a gradual narrowing of the effectiveness of this system, due to a decrease in the number of subjects studied (foreign languages, including Russian, physical education, drawing, labor, hygiene), a decrease in the number of programs in physics, chemistry, and a number of other subjects. ... The history program only provides for the study of the history of Turkmenistan; at the same time, the ideological work written by S. Niyazov is studied more often Ruhnama... The dismissal of 11 thousand teachers in 2000-2001 had a negative impact on the educational process.

The admission of students to universities has decreased from 12 thousand to 3 thousand people (admission to a medical institute has been reduced from 3 thousand to 600 people). The faculties of distance learning, many specialized departments were closed, the committee for vocational technical education was abolished, a system of compulsory work experience was introduced for admission to higher and secondary specialized educational institutions. Thus, at present, more than 35 thousand young people a year do not have a chance to continue their education after leaving school.

In the field of education, corruption and bribery were noted (the size of bribes for admission to prestigious schools and universities reaches $ 10,000). Some higher educational institutions (military and police) are prohibited from admitting persons of non-Turkmen nationality. A certain damage to the quality of education was caused by the transition in teaching to the Turkmen language, since it lacks modern terminology (especially in the field of natural sciences and high technologies), which still objectively forces students to use Russian.

Considerable damage to the education system, training and use of personnel, research work was caused by the decision not to recognize diplomas issued since 1993 outside of Turkmenistan, the need to have two years of work experience "in the chosen specialty" to enter the university, as well as the liquidation of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan. And although the leadership of Turkmenistan denies information about the non-recognition of Russian diplomas, the attitude towards their holders has deteriorated when they are hired.

Lifestyle.

At the heart of the country's socio-political life, including the way of life of citizens, is the principle of authoritarian power. According to the leaders of the country, a national classless society of a fundamentally new type is successfully forming in the country, which has no analogues in the historical retrospective and in the modern world. This, according to President Niyazov, is "a society built as a result of a conscious desire for self-determination, in which all its citizens, regardless of age, social status and religion, live by the same aspirations." In the future, such a social organism is transformed into "a just, legal society of general prosperity, in which everything will be subordinated to the well-being and prosperity of man."

However, in reality, the country has seen the rise of Turkmen nationalism and the strengthening of the cult of the president. New conceptual approaches are being created to study the development of the Turkmen state and its place in the world historical process, the ideology of "Turkmenbashism" is being actively implemented, which, according to the authorities, should underlie the lifestyle of every inhabitant of the country. These ideas are promoted by all media.

In the humanitarian sphere, the idea of the exclusivity of the Turkmen nation and its enormous contribution to the development of world culture is being implanted. The works of Turkmen writers and poets, artists and composers, theater performances and films are devoted to this topic. At the same time, censorship is increasing, designed to minimize consumer access to works that do not fit into the officially established framework, but encourages works, albeit weak in artistic terms, but praising the era of the current Independent Turkmenistan.

Formally, since the beginning of the current millennium, the way of life of the Turkmen has been defined by the “holy book of the Ruhnama”, which is the quintessence of the ideas of “Turkmenbashism”. This is a kind of spiritual code, generalizing the life attitudes of the state, born, as the author of the book emphasizes, "to educate the strength and greatness of spirit in the Turkmen." The work of Turkmenbashi is a study of almost all aspects of the life of the Turkmen people and prescribes the "correct" norms of life, including behavior in everyday life. The nationalist concept inherent in the Rukhnama also has a religious connotation: some of its postulates correlate with the provisions of the Koran and serve as the basis for affirming the inviolability of the president's power. The postulates underlying the Rukhnama are somewhat reminiscent of the moral code of the builder of communism, where moral and ideological ideas underlie all aspects of an individual's life.

Culture.

Turkmenistan has a rich cultural heritage that has been created over millennia. This, in particular, is evidenced by the ongoing excavations of Nisa (18 km from Ashgabat), the capital of the ancient Parthian state, which existed at the turn of the 1st millennium BC, for many years. - I millennium AD Remains of city blocks, temples and palaces have been preserved here. During the excavations of Nisa, graceful ivory rhytons (horn-shaped goblets), sculptures made of clay and stone, coins, archival records on clay tablets were discovered. These findings are of global importance.

To the north of the city of Bayram-Ali lie the ruins of another ancient city - Merv, which is one of the most significant historical and architectural monuments of Turkmenistan. Its oldest part is the Erk-Kala settlement, which dates back to the 1st millennium BC. In the middle of the 1st millennium A.D. Merv was the capital of the eastern part of the Sassanian Empire, and then the center of the Arab governors in Khorasan. The city reached its heyday in the 12th century. as part of the state of the Seljukids and Khorezmshahs, as evidenced by the remains of the settlement of Sultan-Kala with the mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in the center. At that time, Merv was the largest center for the production of artistic stamped ceramics in the East. In the north of Turkmenistan, where the ancient Urgench, the capital of Khorezm in the 12-13th centuries, was located, such monuments as the Akkala fortress ("White Fortress"), the minaret, the mausoleum of Fakhreddin Razi (second half of the 1st century), which is a brick cuboid a building with a twelve-sided hipped roof.

The ancient culture of Central Asia, including Turkmenistan, is based on the religious traditions of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity and some other cults and beliefs. Beginning at the turn of the 7th – 8th centuries, when the region was conquered by the Arabs, Islam became the dominant religion. Believers Turkmens, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Kazakhs and some other ethnic groups of modern Turkmenistan profess predominantly Sunni-Hanifite Islam. However, a small portion of the local Iranian population is Shi'a.

Over the centuries, Sufism has played an important role in Turkmen society - the mystical direction of the Muslim doctrine, which is characterized by a combination of metaphysics with ascetic practice, the doctrine of a gradual approach through mystical love to the knowledge of God. Sufism (as well as Sunnism) had a significant impact on the cultural development of Turkmenistan, literature, folk art and even on the political life in the country.

Until the mid-1930s, the culture of Turkmenistan was also built on the cultural traditions of the Oguz Turkic people, dating back to the pre-Islamic period and most noticeably manifested in music, epos and literature. The culture of the country was also based on the proper Turkmen traditions that developed, as noted above, at the end of the 9th century. after the adoption of Islam by the Seljuk state. The most famous work of the pre-Islamic period is the national epic of the Oghuz Oguz-name (Oghuz book), belonging to the cultural heritage of not only Turkmens, but also Azerbaijanis and Turks. It was passed down orally from generation to generation and was only recorded in the middle of the 16th century. There is also an epic poem Kitabi Dede Korkud, which reflected the pre-Islamic tribal culture of the Oguzes and the influence of Islam in the 11-12 centuries.

After the adoption of Islam by the Turkic peoples, writing based on the Arabic alphabet became widespread in Central Asia. At the same time, the Persian language, adopted as the state language by the Seljukids and almost all subsequent dynasties, was considered the language of science and high culture. However, Turkmen poetry used the Chagatai language, which is also widespread in Central Asia. Its phonetic system was flexible enough to convey the peculiarities of the Turkic languages. At the same time, the Arabic graphics were used, somewhat modified to better convey the Turkic phonetics; it was in the Chagatai language that Turkmen literature developed. The great Turkmen poet and thinker of the 18th century wrote on it. Makhtumkuli (1733-1780s) and his followers Seitnazar Seidi (1775-1836) and Kurbandurdy Zelili (1780-1836). Before Makhtumkuli, Turkmen poetry was represented mainly by Sufi philosophical treatises in poetic form. He and his followers began to write poetry about nature and politics, while going beyond the narrow conventions of Persian poetry; at the same time, the motives of Turkmen folk poetry and epic traditions were widely used. Among the outstanding poets of that time, Nurmukhamed-Gharib Andalib, Magrupi (or Kurbanali), Shabende and Gaibi should also be named.

Since the middle of the 19th century. the works of Turkmen poets acquire a political connotation; at the same time, the influence of Islamic mysticism, mainly Sufism, which previously dominated in Turkmen literature, is significantly weakening. After the annexation of Turkmenistan to the Russian Empire in the 1870s and 1890s, social and political satire took the leading place in poetry. Satirists like Durdygylych and Mollamurt were very popular in the early 20th century.

The Soviet period was marked by radical changes in social and cultural life. In 1928, the Arabic alphabet was replaced by the Latin one, and the Turkmens were cut off from their literary heritage. In 1940, the Latin alphabet as the basis of writing was replaced by the Russian one, and the continuity of cultural traditions in Turkmenistan was again violated. However, at the turn of the 20th century. the country's government decided to switch back to the Latin alphabet.

Turkmen fictional prose and drama began to develop mainly during the Soviet era. The novels and plays written at that time praised the real and imaginary achievements of socialism, incl. the emancipation of women, the collectivization of agriculture, the eradication of feudal and tribal remnants, and later - the victory of the Soviet people in World War II. Among the Turkmen writers of the Soviet period, the most famous poet, novelist and playwright Berdy Kerbabaev (1894-1974).

It should be especially noted that over the millennia, many legends have been created about the world-famous Akhal-Teke horses, which, according to legend, descended from heavenly horses, and about which already in the 5th century. BC. The "father of history" Herodotus reported that the Turanians (ancestors of the Turkmens) chose them as a symbol of the sun. Even now, it is forbidden to export Akhal-Teke horses from Turkmenistan without special permission.

In 2003, the Society of Turkmen Culture was registered in Russia, uniting representatives of the Turkmen diaspora living in Moscow. Its main task is to promote the development of Turkmen culture, deepening friendship and mutual understanding between the peoples of Russia and Turkmenistan.

In the sphere of culture, it was not without strict prohibitions and restrictions on the part of the authorities. After the banning of opera, ballet, circus, and the closure of cinemas, public libraries were closed in early 2005, because, according to the country's leaders, "no one goes there anyway and reads books." Subscription to foreign publications was banned back in 2002. Only the president's creations are sold in abundance in bookstores, primarily the Rukhnama.

Mass media.

In Turkmenistan, television has been operating for over 40 years, and currently there are 4 state channels - TMT-1, TMT-2, TMT-3 (all in the Turkmen language) and the satellite information and music channel TV- that entered service at the end of 2004. 4 (broadcast in Turkmen, English, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, French and Farsi). According to estimates, there are currently about 900 thousand TV sets in the country. A 10-minute news bulletin is given in Russian. Each channel broadcasts about 16 hours a day.

The overwhelming majority of the program is of a low professional level; only positive is presented to the viewer, criticism can come exclusively from the president himself. In early 2002, for the first time, he sharply criticized the programs of national television, emphasizing their endless praise of the president, hours of chanting, lack of zest, etc. However, after that, the situation on Turkmen TV remained almost unchanged.

There is censorship on television, as in other media. There is no live broadcast; programs are given after careful review by censors (the Committee for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press and Other Mass Media under the Cabinet of Ministers of Turkmenistan, as well as relevant ministries and departments.

In these conditions, the population of the country uses the possibilities of satellite television whenever possible. In Ashgabat, whose population is close to 800 thousand people, about 2/3 of the capital's residents watch TV programs from the satellite, in velayats (cities) - over 30%, and in rural areas - about 10%. At the same time, preference is given mainly to Russian television programs. Further growth in the number of owners of satellite dishes is limited by the high cost of equipment. There is a ban on cable television in the country, which is motivated by the fact that providers sometimes put on cable “programs that do not correspond to the national spirit”.

Radio Turkmenistan is also state-owned, broadcasts only in the Turkmen language and does not differ from television in the content of the programs. Broadcasting through the broadcast wires of Mayak, which had been an outlet for Turkmen citizens for many years, was banned in July 2004. The few journalists and radio listeners who maintain contacts with foreign media are systematically targeted by the authorities. By 2002, there were 17 AM radio stations, 8 FM and 3 shortwave stations in the country. The radio listeners had about 1.4 million radio receivers at their disposal.

Press In 2005, there were 23 newspapers in Turkmenistan (including 5 regional ones, for example, "Ashgabat", "Vatan" ("Rodina"), "Mary-Shikhu-Dzhakhan", "Balkan") and 6 magazines. 21 newspapers are published one to three times a week. And only 2 newspapers - "Turkmenistan" and "Neutral Turkmenistan" are published 6 times a week; the only newspaper in Russian is Neutral Turkmenistan. The founder of almost all central newspapers is President S. Niyazov. There are also departmental newspapers, for example, Mugallymlar Gazeti, published three times a week, founded by the Ministry of Education of Turkmenistan and the trade union of educators.

All periodicals, as well as TV and radio broadcasting, almost completely pay attention to the activities of the president and the achievements of the Turkmen in various spheres of the country's socio-economic and socio-political life. Since October 1996, private individuals and non-governmental organizations have been banned from subscribing to foreign, including Russian, newspapers and magazines. In 1997, the Russian editorial offices of local newspapers were liquidated in the velayats. And since 2002, the import of the Russian press into the country has been completely banned. There are cases of compulsory subscription of Turkmen citizens at their place of work to Turkmen newspapers and magazines.

At the same time, the Turkish newspaper “Zaman” is published on a regular basis in Turkmenistan, which has its own editorial office “Zaman-Turkmenistan” and an independent publishing base. It is curious that the agreement on the activities of "Zaman" was concluded at the level of heads of state and enshrined in a separate decree of the President of Turkmenistan.

According to the international organization "Reporters without Borders", in 2004, out of 167 countries of the world, Turkmenistan ranked 164th in terms of freedom of the press.

There is only one thing in Turkmenistan information Agency, state-owned- "TDH" ("Turkmen dovlet khabarlary" or the Turkmen state news agency, formerly "Turkmen-press"), from which all media get information. Foreign agencies in Turkmenistan are also obliged to cover events in the country only in the context of loyalty to the policies of the Turkmen authorities.

Established in 1992 Union of Journalists of Turkmenistan does not play a significant role in the country and does not affect relations within the journalistic community.

Internet services is provided by the country's only state-owned provider, Turkmentelekom, whose connection costs are high, which makes it difficult to use. The provision of these services is subject to a number of conditions that reduce the ability to access it. In 2002, a few Internet cafes in Ashgabat were closed, and in 2004 the state stopped opening new e-mail addresses. Authorities can block access to websites that post "inappropriate" information, and those caught visiting such sites are subject to sanctions.

The state has a number of websites on the Internet that provide information on the political, economic, and social life of the country; this information is in a style favorable to the authorities.

HISTORY

Ancient history.

The first evidence of human settlement of the territory of Turkmenistan dates back to the Neolithic era. In the course of archaeological excavations, many stone tools were found, as well as the remains of settlements of hunters and fishermen, among which the most famous is the Jebel grotto in the eastern part of the Caspian Sea. It was also discovered that in the 2nd millennium BC. pottery production and metal processing arose in these territories.

The southern part of Turkmenistan was the northeastern outskirts of the ancient agricultural cultures of the Middle East, and it was here that, most likely, for the first time in Central Asia, agriculture and cattle breeding began to develop. The settlement of Dzheitun found near Ashgabat, dating back to the 6th century. BC, is one of the most ancient agricultural settlements on the territory of the former USSR.

The ancient farmers of the foothill plains of southern Turkmenistan settled in houses built of clay rollers - the predecessors of adobe bricks, made reaping sickles with flint inserts, grain graters, molded ceramic dishes decorated with red painting. During the Neolithic period, the first primitive irrigation canals began to appear in this zone. The development of agriculture continued into the Bronze Age. A number of archaeological sites - large settlements of Namazga-Tepe, Altyn-Tepe, Kara-Tepe, etc., some of which belong to the proto-city type, belong to that time. During the excavations, objects of art were also found there - figurines, ceramic vessels with paintings, etc.

Areas of agriculture in southern Turkmenistan 7-6 centuries. BC NS. were part of different states: Margiana (Mypgaba basin) - was part of Bactria; the southwestern regions of Parthia and Hyrcania are part of Media. In the 4-6 centuries. BC NS. the territories that later formed Turkmenistan directly were part of the Achaemenid state, and then into the possession of Alexander the Great and his successors. At the end of the 1st millennium BC. the Khorezm kingdom was founded, the period of prosperity of which began in the middle of the 4th century. BC. The cities of Khorezm were centers for the development of agriculture, crafts and trade.

The Parthian kingdom, which appeared later during the reign of King Mithridates II (124–84 BC), quickly turned into one of the largest eastern states. During that period, the city of Merv (the main city of Parthia, now Mary) became an important trade, handicraft, cultural and even intellectual center. It is no coincidence that Merv was called "Shahu-Jahan", which means "Queen of the world." Important trade routes (including the famous Great Silk Road) passed through this city, which connected Khorezm, Sogd, Balkh, India and China.

In 224 A.D. southern Turkmenistan was captured by the dynasty of Iranian Sassanid shahs. At the same time, part of the nomadic tribes of Turkmenistan began to assimilate with the Sünnu tribes, the predecessors of the Huns. In the middle of the 5th century. the union of the Hunnic tribes led by the Hephthalites managed to subjugate most of this territory. The Ephthalites were defeated by the Turkic union of tribes, which had a great influence on the language and way of life of the peoples they conquered. By the beginning of the Arab conquest in the 6th century. almost all tribes here became Turkic-speaking and later began to profess Islam, introduced by the Arabs. Since that time, this confession has become fundamental in the Turkmen state up to the present time.

Middle Ages.

At the beginning of the 8th century. the territory between the Caspian Sea and the Amu Darya was ruled by the Arab Caliphate. Local Turkic tribes who converted to Islam have established close trade and cultural relations with the rest of the Muslim world. However, as the power of the Arabs weakened (although Islam still remained the dominant religion), the Oghuz Turks penetrated into the territory of Turkmenistan, and in the middle of the 11th century. it came under the rule of the Seljuk state, which was named after the leader of the Oghuz - Seljuk ibn Tugak and his descendants - the Seljukids. The capital of this state was the city of Merv. The Oguzes mixed with the local tribes, and on this basis, a people was formed, which received the name "Turkmens", and the country began to be called Turkmenistan ("the land of the Turkmens"). In the 12-13 centuries. it was ruled by the shahs of Khorezm, which in turn was conquered by the troops of Genghis Khan in 1219-1221 and became part of the Mongol Empire.

In the following centuries, there was a large-scale settlement of Turkmen tribes along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangyshlak, Ustyurt, Balkhany peninsulas, the northwestern part of the Khorezm area, the shores of Lake Sarykamysh and Uzboy, and even in the Karakum desert. They also occupied the lands of southern Turkmenistan, where the Iranian-speaking agricultural population still survived.

During the reign of the descendants of Genghis Khan, some Turkmen tribes achieved partial independence and founded vassal feudal states. They played a significant role in the history of the Turkmens even after Central Asia at the end of the 14th century. was conquered by Timur (Tamerlane). After the fall of the Timurid dynasty, nominal control over this territory passed to Persia and the Khiva Khanate. At that time, a layer of merchants gradually emerged among the Turkmens, mainly among the tribes living on the coast of the Caspian Sea, who began to trade with Russia (especially actively during the reign of Peter I).

During the late Middle Ages, the Turkmen tribes were finally divided between three feudal states - Persia, Khiva and Bukhara. The social system of the Turkmen, starting from the 16th century, was defined by historians as patriarchal-feudal with elements of patriarchal slavery. Feudal relations were most developed among the sedentary agricultural tribes (the Daryalyk Turkmens, the Yazyrs of the Kopetdag strip). At that time, the Turkmens had almost no major cities, developed handicrafts and economically lagged behind their neighbors - the indigenous inhabitants of Persia, Bukhara and Khiva, which was one of the main reasons for their political fragmentation. In the 16-17 centuries. their territory was the object of fierce wars between the Bukhara and Khiva khans, and the south of Turkmenistan was captured by Safavid Iran.

At that time, the Sarykamysh lake, along the banks of which the Turkmen tribes lived, began to gradually dry up, and the flow of water along the Daryalyk also decreased. This circumstance forced people to gradually move to the south, to the Atrek steppes and the Kopetdag regions, and from there - to the southeast, to the valleys of Murghab and Amu Darya. From the beginning of the 17th century. Kalmyks, who came from the east in search of free lands, began to raid the nomadic camps of the northern Turkmens and the city of Khorezm. The beginning of the strengthening of political and economic relations between the Turkmen and Russia dates back to that time. Moreover, at the end of the 17th century. some Turkmen tribes, tired of the raids of the Kalmyks and the armed detachments of the Khiva Khan, went over to Russian citizenship and partially moved to the North Caucasus.

New story.

In the first half of the 18th century. most of the territory of Turkmenistan fell into the hands of the Iranian shah Nadir. The rebellious part of the Turkmens went to Mangyshlak, to the Caspian steppes and to Khorezm. However, after the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747, his empire collapsed rather quickly, which allowed the Turkmen tribes, who temporarily left to the north, to return to southern Turkmenistan.

At that time, the Turkmen inhabited almost the entire territory of modern Turkmenistan. Many of the Turkmen tribes - the Ersari, Teke (Teke), Emut (Yomuts), Goklens, Saryks and Salyrs, Chovdurs, etc. - had significant military potential and established trade relations with other countries. Trade routes ran through the Turkmen lands connecting Europe with Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan.

During the Russo-Persian War of 1804-1813, Russian diplomats entered into a friendly alliance with a number of Turkmen tribes against Persia. The very territory of Turkmenistan was assigned the role of a springboard in the Russian plans to conquer Central Asia with its rich natural resources. The penetration of Russia into Turkmenistan began with the founding of the city of Krasnovodsk on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea in 1869. In 1869-1873, the tribes of western Turkmenistan easily yielded to the pressure of diplomats and the military force of Russia, while the tribes of eastern Turkmenistan offered fierce resistance to the Russian troops until January 1881, when the Geok-Tepe fortress was taken. The fall of this fortress completed the conquest of the Turkmen lands by Russia.

After joining Russia, Turkmenistan began to be actively involved in the economic system of Russian market relations, which was much more progressive in comparison with the archaic socio-economic structure of the Turkmen tribes.

In the 80s of the 19th century. on the territory of Turkmenistan, the Transcaspian Railway, which stimulated the growth of the region's economy, the production and export of raw materials (primarily cotton) to Russia and further to the European markets.

In the Trans-Caspian region, cities arose (Krasnovodsk, Ashgabat, etc.) with a growing Russian and Armenian population, and industrial enterprises appeared. Before the October Revolution, elements of the market appeared in the social system of the Turkmens, which remained mainly patriarchal-feudal, especially noticeable in the southern (Ashgabat, Merv) regions.

During the first Russian revolution of 1905–1907, there were strikes organized by the Social Democrats on the Trans-Caspian Railway. After the defeat of the revolution, strikes were banned, and any manifestations of discontent were brutally suppressed by the authorities.

In 1916, a wave of mass protests of the indigenous population against mobilization for rear work swept through Turkmenistan. After the overthrow of the tsarist regime in March 1917, the previously banned groups of Social Democrats, including the Bolsheviks, became active in large cities - Ashgabat, Krasnovodsk, Chardzhou, Marakh. However, the rural population remained passive and did not get out of the control of their religious and tribal leaders.

Recent history.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the Red Army, the White Guard, the British Expeditionary Forces, and the Social Revolutionaries fought on the territory of Turkmenistan. The eastern regions of Turkmenistan remained under the rule of the Khiva and Bukhara khanates, which were vassals of the Russian Empire. Although the Bolsheviks were able to win over the Russian workers in the cities to their side, attempts to win the trust of the Turkmen peasants - the dekhan - were unsuccessful.

In December 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Ashgabat, but did not hold out there for long. The White Guards and Socialist-Revolutionaries, with the support of British troops, revolted in July 1918 and drove out the Bolsheviks. To prevent the loss of Turkmenistan and the entire Trans-Caspian region, units of the Red Army were sent there. In August 1918, the territory of Turkmenistan was occupied by British troops, which retained control until September 1919, when most of them were recalled by the British government. Individual anti-Bolshevik formations continued to resist until February 1920, when Red Army units occupied Krasnovodsk. This event meant the final defeat of the White Guards and Socialist-Revolutionaries; at the same time, the withdrawal of British military units was completed. In 1920, revolutionary upheavals took place in Khiva and Bukhara, and the Khorezm and Bukhara People's Soviet Republics were formed there.

In the period from April 1918 to October 1924, the country was officially called the Turkmen Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and was part of the RSFSR. On October 27, 1924, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed as part of the USSR. The first step taken by the government of the Turkmen SSR was the continuation of land and water reforms begun after the victory of the Red Army in 1920. At the same time, the redistribution of land that had previously belonged to large landowners - the bays; the organization of peasant cooperatives and the restoration of the oil industry began.

In 1926, collectivization of agriculture and the creation of large cotton plantations began in the republic. By 1929, almost 15% of dekhans became members of collective farms (collective farms), and by 1940 practically all the land was in the use of collective farms, and the peasants who cultivated it became collective farmers. Shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Turkmenistan took the second place (after Uzbekistan) in the USSR in cotton production. Other branches of agriculture also developed intensively, which was facilitated by the expansion and improvement of irrigation systems, primarily the construction of reservoirs and irrigation canals.

The 1930s were marked by the intensive development of the oil industry. Production resumed at the fields of the Cheleken Peninsula, which were damaged during civil war, new fields were explored and put into operation near Nebitdag. Almost all raw materials mined or grown in Turkmenistan were sent for processing to other Soviet republics.

One of the important results of the development of industrial production was the formation of new social groups - engineering and technical workers and skilled workers. The level of literacy of the population was significantly increased in the republic, thanks to the support of the federal government of the USSR, significant progress was achieved in the development of education and health care.

However, along with this, during collectivization, the Turkmen middle class (the so-called "kulaks") in agriculture was practically destroyed, and during collectivization, almost all Muslim clergy and a significant part of the newly formed national intelligentsia became victims of repressions that took place since the mid-1930 -x until 1953.

The Second World War gave a powerful impetus to the economic development of Turkmenistan, since at the beginning of the war, many industrial enterprises from the western regions of the USSR were evacuated to Turkmenistan; accordingly, the need arose for the rapid development of transport. At that time, the Ashgabat (now Central Asian) railway was extended to the Caspian port of Krasnovodsk.

At the beginning of World War II, the 87th separate Turkmen brigade was created, which later formed the basis of the 76th rifle division. During the war, 19 thousand soldiers and officers of Turkmenistan were awarded orders and medals, 51 Turkmen soldiers were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

The tragedy that befell the Turkmen people in 1948 - the devastating Ashgabat earthquake - was added to the economic and social difficulties of the post-war years. Nevertheless, in the post-war period it was possible (largely thanks to the Russians and Ukrainians who came to Turkmenistan from the regions of the USSR devastated during the war) to restore and modernize the national economy of the republic: to create an oil and gas complex, to develop an oil refining industry, to build the Karakum Canal, to diversify agricultural production, including increasing the harvest of cotton.

The period of independence.

On August 22, 1990, Turkmenistan proclaimed its sovereignty within the USSR. In October 1990, Saparmurat Niyazov, first secretary of the Communist Party of Turkmenistan since 1985 and chairman of the republic’s Supreme Council (since January 1990), was elected president of the republic in uncontested elections. On October 26, 1991, the government held a referendum on the independence of Turkmenistan; 94% of the population voted for independence. The next day, October 27, 1991, the Supreme Council declared Turkmenistan independent state, and at the end of December 1991 the country joined the CIS. The next, 1992, the Constitution of Turkmenistan was adopted (May 18), and three years later, on December 12, 1995, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution on the "Permanent Neutrality of Turkmenistan", which determined the country's domestic and foreign policy.

The offensive of 2001 in the country was announced as the beginning of the “golden age” of the Turkmen people, an era of prosperity in the economic and social spheres.

At the same time, according to international human rights organizations, in recent years, Turkmenistan is among the ten countries in the world with the most brutal dictatorial regimes (along with such countries as the DPRK, Zimbabwe, Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, etc.).

In December 1991, at a joint meeting of the parliament, the Council of Elders and the national movement "Galkynysh", President S. Niyazov was empowered to hold an unlimited presidency. In his public speeches, he emphasizes that during the transition period in the country, it is necessary to maintain strict state regulation of the socio-economic sphere. In his opinion, rapid socio-economic reforms (especially market reforms) and democratic reforms will lead to the absolute impoverishment of the population, to chaos in all spheres of public life. According to the president, “no one is allowed to play democracy. First, laws must work, and democracy will come by itself. Any attempts to push Turkmenistan to untimely radical measures of a socio-economic nature run counter to the national interests of the country, which has chosen its own path of development. "

The opposition is completely suppressed in the country. Turkmenistan is one of the few countries where the prosecutor's office officially receives 50% of the confiscated property of persons accused of various crimes.

At the same time, there are positive aspects in the socio-economic policy of the authorities, stability in society is maintained. There is an obvious desire to prevent the activation of Islamic extremists in the country, measures are being taken to prevent the penetration of orthodox Islam into Turkmenistan from outside (from Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, etc.).

A significant achievement of the President is the low crime rate in the country. According to official data in Turkmenistan, with more than 5 million population (2000), only 10.885 crimes were registered, incl. 267 murders, 159 grievous bodily harm, 61 rapes, 3234 thefts, 320 robberies.

In addition, the country has low utility bills. The use of gas and water is free, almost no electricity consumption is paid, significant benefits are provided to the population when buying salt, flour; low fares on public transport (bus, trolleybus) - 2 cents per trip, airfare from Ashgabat to Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk in the Caspian Sea) - about $ 2 A liter of AI-95 gasoline costs about 2 cents, low prices for basic food - lavash, milk, syuzma (national cottage cheese), many vegetables and fruits.

Nevertheless, foreign observers note the consistent and purposeful oppression of ethnic minorities, including Russians, the suppression of the rights and freedoms of citizens of the country, detention without trial or investigation in prisons, the flourishing of corruption in public life and the economy. Drug use is widespread in the country, especially among young people, and a high level of unemployment. In 2004, Turkmenistan was recognized as one of the worst countries to live in - it ranked 150th in the index of economic freedom out of 155 countries around the world. North Korea ranks last in it.

Turkmenistan in the 21st century

In December 2004, parliamentary elections were held in the country. Voter turnout was low by Turkmen standards (just 76 percent). All seats in parliament were given to the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan.
Niyazov, who had long suffered from heart disease, died on December 20, 2006, with no apparent successor.

Presidential elections were held on February 11, 2007. Former Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedov won.

The presidential elections were held on February 12, 2012. The majority of votes (97.14%) were received by the incumbent President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov.

Sergey Kamenev

Literature:

Kamenev S.N. Regional economic cooperation of Russia and Central Asia with the states of the Middle East... - In collection: "Central Asian macroregion and Russia". M., Russian Center for Strategic Studies, 1993
National program of the President of Turkmenistan Saparmurat Turkmenbashi "Strategy of socio-economic transformations in Turkmenistan for the period up to 2010", Ashgabat, 1999
Kamenev S.N. Russia - Turkmenistan: expansion of economic ties... - magazine "Asia and Africa Today", No. 10, 2000
Kamenev S.N. Fuel and energy complex of Turkmenistan: current state and development prospects- In the magazine "Central Asia and the Caucasus", No. 6 (18), 2001
Socio-economic situation of Turkmenistan in 2000... Ashgabat, 2001
Kamenev S.N. The modern socio-political situation of Turkmenistan- Magazine "Central Asia and the Caucasus", No. 2 (20), 2002
Kamenev S.N. Economy of Turkmenistan at the present stage–Magazine "Central Asia and the Caucasus", No. 3 (21), 2002
Kamenev S.N. Foreign policy of Turkmenistan- Magazine "Central Asia and the Caucasus", No. 4 (22), 2002
Demidov M.S. Post-Soviet Turkmenistan... M., publishing house "Natalis", 2002
Kamenev S.N. Energy policy and energy projects of Turkmenistan- Journal "Central Asia and the Caucasus", No. 4 (28), 2003
Kamenev S.N. Main directions of Russian policy in Central and South Asia- In collection: “Pakistan, countries of South Asia and the Middle East. M., publishing house "Scientific book", 2004
"Central Asia. Journal of Area Study Center ". University of Peshawar. Peshawar. Pakistan, 2000-2005
Internet resources:
turkmenistan.ru;
www.turkmenbusiness.org - Economy and Business in Turkmenistan;
www.tax.gov.tm - State Tax Service of Turkmenistan ;.
www.gundogar.org - Turkmen opposition in Russia and abroad.
www.watan.ru - Turkmen opposition in Russia and abroad
www.eurasianet.org is the site of the entire CIS.
www.ca-c.org - magazine "Central Asia and the Caucasus".
www.euroasia.ru - Countries

Environmental protection and efficient use of land and water resources are priority areas of the state environmental policy of Turkmenistan. The strategy of Turkmenistan for the near future in the field of environmental protection is aimed at ecologically safe and sustainable development based on a comprehensive solution of economic, social and environmental problems while respecting natural resources.

Turkmenistan is located in the western part of Central Asia. In the north it borders with Kazakhstan, in the east with Uzbekistan, in the south with the Islamic Republic of Iran and in the southeast with the state of Afghanistan, in the west it is washed by the waters of the Caspian Sea.

The nature of Turkmenistan is rich and unique. Turkmenistan is rightly called the land of the sun. For almost 250 days a year, it does not leave the blue sky. Turkmenistan has unique ecosystems and tens of thousands of species of flora and fauna, many of which are found only on the Turkmen land.

Currently, there are nine state nature reserves in the country, which carry out work to protect and restore biodiversity, especially rare species of plants and animals included in the Red Book of Turkmenistan. The total area of protected areas is over two million hectares.

The flora of Turkmenistan has more than 3,000 plant species, 13% of which are found only on the territory of Turkmenistan and almost 4,000 species of lower plants and fungi. Wild fruits, berries, aromatic, flavoring and melliferous plants growing in the country can be a good help in supplying the population with valuable food products and raw materials for the food and medical industry.

Wild fruit and walnut forests, one of the most valuable on earth juniper forests on the mountain slopes, pistachio savanna woodlands, rare saxaul forests, rivers and floodplain tugai - it is difficult even to list all the unique diversity of nature that can be found in Turkmenistan.

The fauna of Turkmenistan is just as diverse. The fauna of Turkmenistan is represented by over 700 species of vertebrates and over 12,000 species of invertebrates. The Kopetdag Mountains are home to the region's largest population of the Near East leopard; herds of argali and bezoar goats graze here. Badkhyz is inhabited by a well-preserved kulan population, which was not only preserved but also significantly increased. Here you can also find numerous herds of gazelles and argali, such predators as hyena and wolf, as well as numerous representatives of birds - golden eagle, black vulture, griffon vulture, vulture, Saker Falcon, red-headed falcon, etc. Natural territories of Badkhyz, along with Koytendag state natural Reserve, which includes a complex of natural attractions of steppe and mountain ecosystems, nominated in the list of UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites.

In the desert, which occupies almost 80% of the country's territory, thanks to a clear biological balance, many representatives of the animal world feel great. In a hot, arid climate, peculiar forms of plants have developed that are able to extract life-giving moisture from great depths, freeze in their development during the harsh incinerating summer heat and bloom violently, unrestrainedly during a short, fertile spring.

And yet, the nature of Turkmenistan most vividly and fully reveals its colorful diversity in those climatic zones where there is an abundance of water - the basis of life. In the cool foothills, in river valleys, at the junctions of various natural areas in the spring seasons there is a real riot of life.

Mountains and foothill plains in Turkmenistan occupy about 20% of the total area. In the south, east and west of Turkmenistan there are mountain ranges: Kopetdag, Koytendag, Balkhany. If you are moving along a winding mountain road, then literally every new turn, every new step gives you the unique beauty of gorges, mountain slopes, alpine meadows, clean rivers and waterfalls.

The entire completeness of the natural landscapes of Turkmenistan cannot be cognized without visiting the Caspian coast. The Caspian is the largest closed saline sea (lake) on earth, not connected with the world's oceans; the Caspian seal, an endemic of the Caspian Sea, lives here. On the shores you can see flamingos, pelicans, ducks, seagulls and many other birds.

All this amazing beauty can be observed in the Khazar State Nature Reserve, formed back in 1932. More than 300 bird species are found on the territory of the reserve. Caspian coast is a wintering place for numerous migratory birds. On the shores of the Turkmen sector of the sea, the Central Asian and East African migratory routes of birds converge - one of the most important in the world. The total number of birds during wintering in the amount exceeds 200 thousand individuals. In this regard, in 2009, the Turkmenbashi Bay, which is part of the reserve, was included in international list wetlands of the Ramsar Convention.

The world-wide fame of the Turkmen coast of the Caspian Sea was brought not only by the richest mineral resources, but also by the exceptional ecological purity of sea water and excellent conditions for recreation. A large-scale project to create the Avaza National Tourist Zone on the Caspian Sea coast is aimed at creating favorable conditions for people to relax and preserving the unique marine ecosystem.

A foreign tourist sees Turkmenistan as a country of tempting heat. However, although about 80% of the territory is occupied by the Karakum Desert, the variety of natural and climatic zones can satisfy any traveler. Here there is a magnificent sea coast, and the subtropics of the Kopetdag mountains, and the majestic river Amu-Darya (ancient Amul), which carries its waters to the waterless regions of the country. On the plateau of the Kugitang mountains, fossilized dinosaur footprints have been preserved, and the austere beauty of stalactite and stalagmitic caves is awe-inspiring. The pristine nature of Karry-Kala with its waterfalls, rocky gorges, lush vegetation gave this land the name of heaven on earth. And not far from Baharden, at the foot of the Kopetdag, there is a unique underground lake "Kov-Ata". You can swim there all year round, as the lake is fed by warm hydrogen sulphide springs. The nature of Turkmenistan is given a peculiar look by mountains with relict forests and shady gorges, subtropics with a set of endemic rare plants and animals, picturesque corners with natural centuries-old flora.

The beauty of the desert also amazes with her busy life. Proud camels gracefully traverse the sea of barren sands. The richness of flora and fauna does not in any way correspond to the ingrained idea of the Karakum Desert as a dead land. Saxaul twigs weave their endless laces against the bright blue sky. And having seen the desert in bloom at least once (March - May), you will never forget this magnificent riot of beauty.

FIND OUT MORE ABOUT THE NATURAL ATTRACTIONS OF TURKMENISTAN:

Mountains in Turkmenistan occupy about 20% of the total area. The southern border of the country runs along a mountain range Kopetdag, which stretches from northwest to southeast for about 500 km. The highest point of the Kopetdag within Turkmenistan is Mount Shahshah in the south-west of Ashgabat, height 2912m. Kopetdag is a low mountain with narrow valleys. In the valleys there are such settlements as Archabil, Gokdere, Nohur, Desht and others. The Kopetdag mountains are composed of igneous and sedimentary rocks (limestone) formed on seabed... A characteristic phenomenon in the foothills of the Kopetdag is the presence of thermal springs, on the basis of which the world-famous Archman sanatoriums and the Mollagara therapeutic mud resort were created.

In the west, the mountains are the natural continuation of the Kopetdag. Bolshoi and Small Balkan, and in the southeastern part of Turkmenistan, on the right bank of the Amu Darya, there is Kugitang-Tau , representing one of the spurs of the Gissar mountains.

Highest point Kugitanga- The top of the Great Turkmenbashi (Ayrybaba) with a height of 3137m. In the Kugitang mountains there are several unique natural objects, namely the magnificent, winding Umbar-dere canyon with a waterfall falling from a height of 28 m., Sulfur-hydrogen thermal source Keinar-baba, Kyrk-Gyz gorge, Unabi grove, named after the dates growing in it Unabi (buckthorn arnap) karst freshwater lake Kitten. Of particular interest is the Dinosaur Plateau (500m long, 200m wide) near the village of Khojapil-ata with more than 2500 paw prints of ancient dinosaurs (Upper Jurassic period, about 150 million years ago), both herbivorous iguanodonots and predators. The diameter of large footprints of adults is 70-80 cm, the distance of the stride is 1.5 m, thus the growth of dinosaurs was 8-12 m, the length of the body was up to 5 m, all within 5-10 tons.

There are a large number of caves in Turkmenistan. Unique natural monuments are the famous karst Karlyuk caves to Kugitang. There are about 30 of them in the Karlyuk system of caves. The Kap-Kotan cave is a gallery of halls decorated with stalactites and stalagmites formed from gypsum, calcite, onyx, aragonites. One of the most beautiful in the world is the Gulshirin Cave with its famous Fairy Tale Hall. Many caves have not yet been explored. In terms of the richness of the decoration, the Karlyuk caves have no equal in Eurasia, and they are rightfully included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Kov-ata — one of the natural pearls of Turkmenistan is the Bakharden underground lake "Kov-Ata". All over the world, there are up to one hundred thousand caves, the formation of which has developed as a result of carbonate deposits. The formation of such caves took place over millions of years, and some of them are archaeological sites. Currently, karst caves are used as balneological caves. Bakharden cave "Kov-Ata", translated from Turkmen means "father of caves". The total length of the cave is 250 meters, depth from the main entrance is 65 meters, width is 50 meters, height is 15 meters, maximum height is 26 meters. Most of the cave is occupied by a lake.

Archabil gorge - a narrow intermountain valley, 10 km long. with a picturesque natural park along the banks of the mountain river Firyuzinka, flowing along the tectonic fault of the Central Kopetdag. The sides of the gorge are composed of sedimentary rocks. On the territory of the Firyuzinsky gorge of the ball, a narrow-gauge railway was laid, along which the Tsar's nobility traveled.

Mergenishan gorge - an amazing creation of nature, located along the southeastern coast of Lake Sarykamysh, in the lower part of the largest channel of the Daudan collector system. The gorge was formed in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. as a result of water discharge from Lake Tyunyuklyu to Sarikamysh through a flat sandy-loamy alluvial plain. It is a winding canyon with a flat bottom from 15 to 70 m wide and sheer walls up to 35 m high.

The most beautiful place of Nohur - Aydere gorge - "Bear"... Just 15km. from the village there is a fantastic corner of untouched, wild nature. The length of the gorge, which originates from the valley of the Sumbar River, is great.

In the west, the waters of the Caspian Sea wash the territory of Turkmenistan for six hundred kilometers. The geographical study of the Trans-Caspian lands began from the shores of the Caspian, and the foundations of economic and cultural relations of Turkmenistan with neighboring states were laid on its coast. The Turkmen coast of the Caspian Sea can rightfully be called one of the most unique natural sites in the country.

The area of the Caspian Sea is 372 thousand square kilometers, and the basin area is 10 times larger than the water surface of 3.6 million square kilometers. The length of the sea from north to south is 1300 km., Width at the narrowest point is 200 km., Wide 800 km. The average depth is 180 m, the maximum depth is 980 m. The Caspian Sea lies 28.5 m below sea level. In the Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan borders with Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan and Russia. Such large rivers as the Volga, Ural, Kura and Terek flow into the Caspian Sea.

The Caspian coast is inhabited by a rich flora and fauna, many of which are so rare that it is rather difficult to find them in natural conditions. All this amazing beauty can be observed in the Khazar State Reserve, formed back in 1932.

The main wealth of the sea is fish. In the Caspian, they catch herring, pike perch, roach, mullet, sprat, sturgeon. The most valuable fish, the beluga, is found only in the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea basin is famous for its reserves of oil, gas and various chemical raw materials. The world-wide fame of the Turkmen coast of the Caspian Sea was brought not only by the richest mineral resources, but also by the exceptional ecological purity of sea water and excellent conditions for recreation.

Karakum canal constitutes one of the attractions of Turkmenistan. A large-scale artificial river was built during 1955-1962. The total length of the Karakum Canal is 1100 km, it directly crosses the South-Eastern Karakum, passing through the heart of the desert from the Amu Darya to Ashgabat and providing water to the large industrial cities of Ashgabat, Mary, Balkanabat, Turkmenbashi.

Amu Darya is the largest of the rivers of Turkmenistan and Central Asia as a whole, its total length is 2540 km, of which 1000 km. falls on the territory of our country. The catchment area of the Amu Darya is 227 thousand square kilometers. the river is fed by melt water from glaciers and snow, which causes two floods - in spring and summer. The Karakum canal begins from the left bank of the Amu Darya, which connects the main waterway of the country with the Murghab and Tejen rivers.

Murghab river ranks second in size and economic importance, the total length of the river is 852 km, of which 350 km. flows through the territory of Turkmenistan.

Rivers flow in the southwestern part of the country Etrek and Sumbar... The small mountain rivers flowing from the northern slopes of the Kopetdag include Arvaz, Altyab, Sekizab, Firyuzinka, Ashgabat, Beurminka, Karasu, Kozganchai, Dushak, Minechai .

KOV-ATA — one of the natural pearls of Turkmenistan is the Bakharden underground lake "Kov-Ata". All over the world, there are up to one hundred thousand caves, the formation of which has developed as a result of carbonate deposits. The formation of such caves took place over millions of years, and some of them are archaeological sites. Currently, karst caves are used as balneological caves. Bakharden cave "Kov-Ata", translated from Turkmen means "father of caves".

The total length of the cave is 250 meters, depth from the main entrance is 65 meters, width is 50 meters, height is 15 meters, maximum height is 26 meters. Most of the cave is occupied by a lake. The cave is known all over the world for the temperature of the lake water, which is maintained throughout the year (from +33 to +37 С0), as well as for its high healing properties (increased content of hydrogen sulfide, bromine, iodine ...). Swimming in the underground lake "Kov-Ata" all year round.

Lake Sarikamysh is the most big lake Turkmenistan. Its area exceeds 2,200 km. Sarakamysh natural reserve was made for protection of water fowl - pelicans, cormorants and coots.

Nohur is famous for its waterfalls , one of them "Khurkhuri", the sources of which are in 9 high-mountainous streams, merging into a small river, with noise and rainbow splashes rushing down from a 53-meter cliff.

One of the largest and longest deserts in the world - The Karakum Desert is located on the territory of Turkmenistan. Translated from Turkmen, this name means "black sands". The majestic sandy desert stretches 450 km from north to south and 800 km from east to west. The area is 35 million hectares. In terms of relief, it is divided into Zaunguz, South-Eastern and Central Karakum with the Unguz depression. The climate is sharply continental with hot summers and cold winters.

Many interesting nature conservation complexes are located in Turkmenistan, the main of which are: Batkhyz, Repetek, Khazar, Gaplangyr and Kugitang.

Reserve Badkhyz — located in the south of Turkmenistan. Near the border with Iran and Afghanistan in the Tejen-Murghab interfluve. The majestic and harsh nature of this region with the only population of onager-onager, which survived within Central Asia only here in the amount of no more than 150 heads, the richness and species diversity of flora and fauna urgently demanded that urgent measures be taken to preserve them. To preserve the kulans, Professor Rozanov prepared a scientifically grounded report of the entire natural complex of Badkhyz on the creation of the reserve and presented it to the Government of Turkmenistan.

On December 3, 1941, despite the difficult wartime, the Badkhyz State Reserve was established.

Other rare valuable animals and plants are also preserved in the Badkhyz reserve, many of which are not found anywhere else. Natural complexes presented in this reserve have no analogues on the territory of Eurasia, and therefore it is rightfully included in the list of the most important reserves in the world at the beginning of 2000. recommended for inclusion in the UNESCO World Cultural and Natural Heritage List.

Rare species of animals and plants make the reserve one of the most interesting corners of Turkmenistan. A visit to the reserve, acquaintance with its original nature will leave an unforgettable experience!

Kugitang nature reserve - located in the southern part of the Lebap velayat. In the Kugitang mountains there are several unique natural objects, namely the magnificent, winding Umbar-dere canyon with a waterfall falling from a height of 28 m., The sulfur-hydrogen thermal spring Keinar baba, the Kyrk-Gyz gorge, the Unabi grove, named after the dates growing in it unabi (buckthorn arnap) freshwater karst lake Koten. Of particular interest is the Dinosaur Plateau (500m long, 200m wide) near the village of Khojapil-ata with more than 2500 paw prints of ancient dinosaurs (Upper Jurassic period, about 150 million years ago), both herbivorous iguanodonots and predators. The highest point of Kugitang is the Top of Turkmenbashi (Ayrybaba) with an altitude of 3137m. The famous Karlyuk karst caves in Kugitangtau are unique natural monuments. The Kap-Kotan cave is a gallery of halls decorated with stalactites and stalagmites formed from gypsum, calcite, onyx, argonites; they have poetic and fabulous names for the halls of Santa Claus and Snow Maiden, Medusa.

Repetek Biosphere Reserve - located in a hot desert about 70 km. from Turkmenabat - the administrative center of the Lebap velayat. A desert reserve was created at the Repetek station in 1927 to protect the unique black saxaul forests in the eastern Karakum and the adjacent desert areas. The area of the reserve is 35 thousand hectares.

Rich vegetable world reserve - black saxaul, white saxaul, sandy acacia, black and white kandym, etc. Tourists are also interested in the fauna of the sandy-desert reserve. Representatives of almost all bird species can be found here. About 30 species of large and small animals live on the territory of the reserve: wolf, caracal, fox, porcupine, jackal.

Here you can observe nature in its pristine and untouched nature.

The nature of Turkmenistan. State structure and politics

Climate

Geography

Flora and fauna

sights

Banks and currency

NATURE

Relief.

Water resources.

Climate

Soils.

Geological structure and minerals.

Vegetable world.

Animal world.

POPULATION

Demography.

Ethnic composition.

Cities.

Religion.

Language.

PUBLIC STRUCTURE AND POLITICS

Political system.

Regional and local government.

The judicial system.

Military establishment.

Foreign policy.

Political parties.

ECONOMY

Labor resources.

Organization of production.

Resources.

Gross domestic product.

Industry.

Agriculture.

Energy.

Transport and communications.

International trade.

The state budget.

Banking system.

Monetary system.

Tourism.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

Lifestyle.

Culture.

Mass media.

HISTORY

Ancient history.

Middle Ages.

New story.

Recent history.

The period of independence.

Turkmenistan in the 21st century

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