Maya Aztecs in literary art. Ancient American cultures (Maya, Aztecs, Incas)

29.1. The Aztecs (Ostyaks?) We are told: “The similarity of the primitive inhabitants of America with the Mongol peoples, some ethnological features of the peoples of the Pacific states of America, reminiscent of the same features among the Asian cultural peoples, for a long time gave this hypothesis

The Mayan Spirit Since Hunab Ku, or the first energy, the Great Spirit, surrounds us everywhere, and is perceived in different ways - thanks to our five senses, thoughts or intuition - it can happen that we stop paying attention to him. Well what's the point

Maya In the whole complex of Mesoamerican cultures, the Maya civilization has a special place. Considering the enormous achievements of the Maya in mathematics, astronomy, calendar and art, which reached unprecedented sophistication and perfection, many wanted

Aztecs Indians told Sahagun the legend of the birth of Huitzilopochtli, the main deity, god of the sun and war, who gave the Aztecs the opportunity to rule in the 15th and early 16th centuries.

Almost all stages of the ancient history of mankind are represented in the New World

Introduction

Cultural areas of America

By the time the Spanish ships appeared at east coast New World, this huge continent, including the islands of the West Indies, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and peoples at different levels of development. Most were hunters, fishermen, gatherers, or primitive farmers; only in two relatively small areas of the western hemisphere - in Mesoamerica and the Andes - the Spaniards met highly developed Indian civilizations. The highest cultural achievements of pre-Columbian America were born on their territory. By the time of its "discovery", in 1492, up to ² / s of the entire population of the continent lived there, although by their size these areas accounted for only 6.2% of its total area. It was here that the centers of origin of American agriculture were located, and at the turn of our era, the original civilizations of the ancestors of the Nahua, Maya, Zapotecs, Quechua, Aymara, etc.

In the scientific literature, this territory is called Middle America or the Zone of High Civilizations. It is subdivided into three districts:

• northern - Mesoamerica
• southern - Andean region (Bolivia - Peru)
• intermediate region between them (southern part of Central America, Colombia, Ecuador)

In the intermediate zone, the development of local peoples, although it reached a significant degree, did not rise to the heights of statehood and civilization. The arrival of the European conquerors interrupted any independent development of the aboriginal population of these areas. Only now, thanks to the work of several generations of archaeologists, are we finally beginning to understand how rich and vibrant the history of pre-Columbian America was.

Historical processes

The New World is also a unique historical laboratory, since the process of development of local culture took place on its own, on the whole, starting from the Late Paleolithic era (30-20 thousand years ago) - the time of the continent's settlement from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska - and up to until he was put to an end by the invasion of European conquerors. Thus, in the New World, almost all the main stages of the ancient history of mankind can be traced: from primitive mammoth hunters to the builders of the first cities - the centers of early class states and civilizations. Already a simple comparison of the path traversed by the indigenous population of America in the pre-Columbian era with the milestones in the history of the Old World gives an unusually large amount for identifying general historical patterns.

The term “discovery of America” by Columbus itself, which is often found in historical works of both domestic and foreign authors, also requires some clarification. It has been rightly pointed out more than once that this term is actually incorrect, since before Columbus the shores of the New World were reached from the east by the Romans, Vikings, etc., and from the west by the Polynesians, Chinese, Japanese, etc. the interchange of the two cultures was not one-sided. For Europe, the discovery of America had colossal political, economic, and intellectual implications.

Cultural contacts of the New and Old Worlds

Anthropomorphic jade mask. Olmec culture. 1 millennium BC

The Indian civilizations of the New World managed to reach their apogee without the most important technical achievements of antiquity, which included the smelting of iron and steel, the breeding of domestic animals (especially draft and pack animals), wheeled transport, a potter's wheel, plow farming, an arch in architecture, etc. In the Andean region, the processing of non-ferrous metals, gold and silver was carried out as early as the II millennium BC. e., and by the time the Europeans arrived, the Incas widely used in their practice not only bronze weapons, but also bronze tools. However, in Mesoamerica, metals (except iron) appeared already at the end of the civilizations of the classical period (I millennium AD) and were used mainly for the manufacture of jewelry and religious objects.

Mesoamerica

The rapid progress of archaeological research in the most important centers of Central America, combined with the efforts of linguists, ethnographers, historians, anthropologists, etc. general form, to trace the main stages of development of the ancient civilization in the New World, to identify its characteristic features and characteristics.

We will, of course, only talk about the most outstanding Indian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Andean region.

A special cultural and geographical area - Mesoamerica (or Mesoamerica) - is the northern region of the zone of the highly developed civilization of the New World and includes Central and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize (formerly British Honduras), the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. In this area, characterized by a variety of natural conditions and a variegated ethnic composition, by the end of the 1st millennium BC. NS. there was a transition from a primitive communal system to an early class state, which immediately promoted the local Indians to the number of the most developed peoples of ancient America. For over one and a half thousand years, which separates the emergence of civilization from the Spanish conquest, the borders of Mesoamerica have undergone significant changes. In general, the era of civilization within this cultural and geographical area can be divided into two periods:

• early, or classic (the turn of the century - IX century A.D.)
• late, or postclassical (X-XVI centuries A.D.)

In the 1st millennium AD NS. the zone of high cultures of Mesoamerica did not include Western and Northwestern Mexico. The northern border of civilization then ran along the river. Lerma and coincided with the northern limits of the Teotihuacan culture. The southern borders of Mesoamerica were at the same time the southern border of the Mayan civilization, passing along the river. Ulua in Western Honduras and r. Lempa in West El Salvador. In the postclassical time, the western (Tarascan state) and part of the northern (Zacatecas, Casas Grandes) regions of Mexico are also included in Mesoamerica, thereby significantly expanding its overall territory.

"Olmec problem"

Giant stone head in a helmet. Olmec culture. La Venta (Tabasco State, Mexico). 1st millennium BC

The most significant Mesoamerican cultures of the classical period are the Teotihuacan (Central Mexico) and Mayan (southern Mexican regions, Belize, Guatemala, western El Salvador and Honduras). But first, a few words about the "first civilization" of Mesoamerica - the culture of the "Olmecs" on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Tabasco, Veracruz). The population of these areas at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. (800-400 BC) reached a high level of culture: at this time, the first "ritual centers" appeared in La Venta, San Lorenzo and Tres Zapotes, pyramids of adoba (adobe) and clay were built, carved stone monuments with themes of predominantly mythological and religious content.

Among the latter, the giant anthropomorphic stone heads in helmets stand out, sometimes weighing up to 20 tons. The Olmec style of art is characterized by low-relief carvings on basalt and jade. Its main motive was the figure of a crying plump child with the features of a jaguar attached to it. These "baby jaguars" adorned graceful jade amulets, massive Celtic axes (the Olmecs had a cult of a stone ax as a symbol of fertility), and giant basalt steles. Another notable feature of the "Olmec" culture was the following ritual: in deep pits in the central squares of settlements, caches were arranged with offerings to the gods in the form of hewn blocks of jade and serpentine, Celtic axes and figurines made of the same materials, etc., with a total weight of tens of centners ... These materials were delivered to the "Olmec" centers from afar: for example, to La Venta - from a distance of 160 and even 500 km. Excavations in another "Olmec" village - San Lorenzo - also revealed giant heads and rows of ritually buried monumental sculptures in a purely "Olmec" style.

According to a series of radiocarbon dates, this refers to the years 1200-900. BC NS. It was on the basis of the above data that the hypothesis was formulated that the "Olmecs" were the creators of the earliest civilization of Mesoamerica (1200-900 BC) and from it all other highly developed cultures of Mesoamerica - Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Maya and others. At the same time, today we have to say that the "Olmec" problem is still very far from being solved. We do not know about the ethnicity of the carriers of this culture (the term "Olmecs" is borrowed from the name of those ethnic groups who settled on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico on the eve of the Conquest). There is no clarity about the main stages in the development of the Olmec culture, the exact chronology and material characteristics of these stages. The general territory of the spread of this culture, its socio-political organization is also unknown.

In our opinion, the culture of the "Olmecs" with all its manifestations reflects a long path of development: from the end of the 2nd millennium BC to the end of the 2nd millennium BC. NS. until the middle - the last centuries of the 1st millennium BC NS. It can be assumed that "ritual centers" with monumental sculpture appear in Veracruz and Tabasco approximately in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. NS. (possibly even 800 BC), as in La Venta. But everything that is presented there archaeologically in 800-400 years. BC e., fully corresponds to the level of "chiefdoms", "alliances of tribes", ie, the final stage of the primitive era. It is significant that the first examples of writing and calendar known to us appear on the "Olmec" monuments only from the 1st century BC. BC NS. (stele C in Tres-Sapotes, etc.). On the other hand, the same "ritual centers" - with pyramids, monuments and calendar hieroglyphic inscriptions are presented in Oaxaca from the 7th-6th centuries. BC BC, and without inscriptions - in mountainous Guatemala, among the ancestors of the Maya, at least from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. NS. Thus, the question of the “ancestor culture” that gave rise to all the others is no longer for Mesoamerica: apparently, there was a parallel development in several key areas at once - the Mexico City Valley, the Oaxaca Valley, mountainous Guatemala, the Mayan plains, etc.

Teotihuacan

50 km northeast of Mexico City, where high mountain ranges part, forming a large and fertile valley (this is an offshoot of the Mexico City Valley), there are the ruins of Teotihuacan - in the past the capital of the ancient civilization of Central Mexico, an important cultural, political and administrative , the economic and cult center not only of this region, but of the whole of Mesoamerica in the 1st millennium AD. NS.

According to scientists, by 600 AD. NS. - the moment of the highest prosperity - the total area of ​​the city was over 18 sq. km, and the population - from 60 to 120 thousand people. The main ritual and administrative core of Teotihuacan, which was already formed by the 1st century. n. BC, was carefully planned around two wide axes-streets intersecting at right angles and oriented to the cardinal points: from north to south, Road of the Dead avenue over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.

It is interesting that at the northern end of the Road of the Dead there is a giant massif of the Pyramid of the Moon (height 42 m), built of mud bricks and faced with rough volcanic stone. By its design and appearance, it is an exact copy of its older sister, the Pyramid of the Sun, located on the left side of the avenue and representing a grandiose five-tiered structure with a flat top, on which the temple once stood. The height of the colossus is 64.5 m, the length of the sides of the base is 211, 207, 217 and 209 m, the total volume is 993 thousand cubic meters. m. It is assumed that the construction of the pyramid required the labor of at least 20 thousand people for 20-30 years.

At the intersection with the transverse avenue, the Road of the Dead rests on a vast complex of buildings erected on one gigantic low platform and united under the general name "Ciutadela", which means "citadel" in Spanish. One of the main researchers of the city, R. Millon (USA), believes that this is the "tekpan" (Aztec palace) of the ruler of Teotihuacan. In this ensemble of graceful buildings, a temple stands out in honor of the god Quetzalcoatl - the Feathered Serpent, the patron saint of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind, one of the main deities of the local pantheon. The building of the temple itself is completely destroyed, but its pyramidal base, consisting of six gradually decreasing stone platforms, placed on top of each other, has been perfectly preserved. The facade of the pyramid and the balustrade of the main staircase are decorated with the sculptural heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly. At the same time, the teeth of the heads of the Feathered Serpent were painted with white paint, and the eyes of the butterflies had false pupils from obsidian disks.

To the west of Ciutadela is a vast complex of buildings (approximately 400 × 600 m). which archaeologists consider as the city's main market. Along Teotihuacan's main avenue, the Road of the Dead, are the ruins of dozens of lush temple and palace structures. By now, some of them have been excavated and reconstructed, so that anyone can get a general idea of ​​their architecture and painting. Such is, for example, the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl or the Palace of the Feathered Snail (part of the premises of the palace has stone square columns with low-relief images of the Feathered Snail). The palace is a vast complex of residential, public and storage facilities grouped around courtyards.

The walls of buildings are made of adobe or stone, plastered and often either painted in some bright color, or (especially inside) have colorful fresco paintings. The most outstanding examples of fresco painting by Teotihuacan are also presented in the Temple of Agriculture, in the groups of Tetitla, Atetelko, Sakuala and Tepantitla. They depict people (representatives of the elite and priests), gods and animals (eagles, jaguars, etc.). Anthropomorphic (apparently, portrait) masks made of stone and clay (in the latter case, with multicolored coloring) are also a peculiar feature of the local culture. In the III-VII centuries. n. NS. in Teotihuacan, the original style of ceramics (cylindrical vases with and without legs with fresco painting or carved ornaments and polishing) and terracotta figurines are becoming widespread.

The architecture of the city is dominated by buildings on pyramidal foundations of various heights, while the design of the latter is characterized by a combination of vertical and inclined surfaces (the style of a vertical "panel and slope").

Fragment from the pictorial "Codex Nuttal". Mixtec culture. XIII-XV centuries AD

The above-described ritual and administrative center of Teotihuacan was surrounded on all sides by residential quarters in the form of clusters of block houses (up to 60 m long), planned for the cardinal points along a regular network of narrow straight streets. Each block consisted of residential, utility and utility rooms, set up around rectangular courtyards and apparently served as a habitat for a group of related families. These are one-storey buildings with flat roofs, made of mud brick, stone and wood. They are usually concentrated in larger units - "quarters" (Spanish barrio), and those, in turn, in four large "districts".

Teotihuacan was the largest craft and trade center in Mesoamerica. Archaeologists have found in the city up to 500 craft workshops (of which - 300 workshops for processing obsidian), quarters of foreign traders and "diplomats" from Oaxaca (Zapotec culture) and from the Mayan territory. Products of the same Teotihuacan masters are found in the 1st millennium AD. NS. from Northern Mexico to Costa Rica. There is no doubt that the cultural, economic (and probably political) influence of the city during its greatest heyday extended to most of Mesoamerica.

And suddenly at the end of the 7th century. n. NS. the huge city suddenly perishes, destroyed by the flames of a gigantic fire. The causes of this catastrophe are still unclear. However, it should be recalled that Teotihuacan was in the 1st millennium AD. NS. the northern outpost of the zone of Mesoamerican civilizations. It bordered directly on the motley and restless world of the barbarian tribes of northern Mexico. Among them we find both sedentary farmers and roving tribes of hunters and gatherers. Teotihuacan, like the ancient agricultural civilizations of Central Asia, India and the Near East, constantly felt the pressure of these warlike tribes on its northern border. Under a certain set of circumstances, one of the enemy's campaigns into the interior of the country, apparently, ended with the capture and destruction of Teotihuacan itself. After this terrible defeat, the city never recovered, and new, more powerful forces - the city-states of Askapotsalco, Cholula, Sochikalko and later, from the 9th century - were moving to the forefront of Mesoamerican history. n. e., - the state of the Toltecs.

Maya civilization of the classical period (I-IX centuries A.D.)

Mayan geography and history

"Temple of the Inscriptions". Mayan culture. Palenque. VIII century AD

The Maya, as if defying fate, settled for a long time in the inhospitable Central American jungle, building their white-stone cities there. Fifteen centuries before Columbus, they invented an accurate solar calendar and created the only developed hieroglyphic writing in America, used the concept of zero in mathematics, and confidently predicted solar and lunar eclipses. Already in the first centuries of our era, they achieved amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting.

But the Maya did not know metals, plows, wheeled carts, domestic animals, potter's wheel. In fact, based only on their set of tools, they were still Stone Age people. The origins of Mayan culture are shrouded in mystery. We only know that the emergence of the first "classical" Mayan civilization dates back to the turn of our era and is associated with the forest plains in southern Mexico and northern Guatemala. For many centuries, populous states and cities have existed here. But in the IX-X centuries. the heyday ended with a sudden and violent disaster. The cities in the south of the country were abandoned, the population fell sharply, and soon tropical vegetation covered the monuments of former greatness with its green carpet.

After the X century. the development of the Mayan culture, although already somewhat changed by the influence of the foreign conquerors, the Toltecs, who came from Central Mexico and from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, continued in the north - on the Yucatan Peninsula - and in the south - in the mountains of Guatemala. The Spaniards found there over two dozen small, constantly warring Indian states, each of which had its own dynasty of rulers. By the beginning of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The Maya Indians occupied a vast and varied natural area, including the modern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as all of Guatemala, Belize, western regions of El Salvador and Honduras.

Mayan borders in the 1st millennium AD e., apparently, more or less coincided with those mentioned above. Currently, most scientists distinguish three large cultural and geographical areas or zones within this territory:

• Northern (Yucatan Peninsula)
• Central (Northern Guatemala, Belize, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico)
• Southern (mountainous Guatemala)

The beginning of the classical period in the low-lying forest areas of the Maya was marked by the emergence of such new cultural features as hieroglyphic writing (inscriptions on reliefs, steles, lintels, ceramics and frescoes, small plastic items), calendar dates for the Maya era (the so-called Long Count - the number of years dating from the mythical date 3113 BC), monumental stone architecture with a stepped "false" vault, the cult of early steles and altars, the specific style of ceramics and terracotta figurines, original wall paintings.

Architecture

Architecture in the center of any big city Maya I millennium AD NS. represented by pyramidal hills and platforms of various sizes and heights. Inside, they are usually constructed from a mixture of earth and rubble, and faced on the outside with slabs of hewn stone, fastened with lime mortar. On their flat tops there are stone buildings: small buildings of one or three rooms on high tower-like pyramid-bases (the height of some of these pyramid-towers, such as, for example, in Tikal, reaches 60 m). These are probably temples. And the long multi-room ensembles on low platforms framing the inner open courtyards are most likely residences of the nobility or palaces, since the floors of these buildings are usually made in the form of a stepped vault, their walls are very massive, and the interiors are relatively narrow and small in size. Narrow doorways served as the only source of light in the rooms, so coolness and twilight reign inside the surviving temples and palaces. At the end of the classical period, the Maya developed ritual ball playgrounds - the third type of main monumental buildings in local cities. The main planning unit in Mayan cities was rectangular cobbled squares surrounded by monumental buildings. Very often, the most important ritual and administrative buildings were located on natural or artificially created elevations - "acropolis" (Piedras Negras, Copan, Tikal, etc.).

Ordinary dwellings were built of wood and clay under roofs of dry palm leaves and were probably similar to the Mayan huts of the 16th-20th centuries described by historians and ethnographers. In the classical period, as well as later, all residential buildings stood on low (1-1.5 m) platforms, faced with stone. Separately standing house- a rare phenomenon among the Maya. Typically, residential and utility rooms form groups of 2-5 buildings located around an open courtyard (patio) of a rectangular shape. This is the seat of a large patrilocal family. Residential “patio groups” tend to cluster into larger units — like a city “block” or part of it.

Monumental sculpture and painting

In the VI-IX centuries. Maya achieved the greatest success in the development of various types of non-applied art, and above all in monumental sculpture and painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan, Yaxchilan, Piedras-Negras achieve at this time a special subtlety of modeling, harmony of composition and naturalness in the transfer of the depicted characters (rulers, priests, dignitaries, warriors, servants and prisoners). The famous Bonampak frescoes (Chiapas, Mexico) dating back to the 8th century. n. e., represent a whole historical narrative: complex rituals and ceremonies, scenes of a raid on foreign villages, the sacrifice of prisoners, a festival, dances and processions of dignitaries and nobles.

Thanks to the works of American (T. Proskuryakov, D. Kelly, G. Berlin, J. Kubler, etc.) and Soviet (Yu.V. Knorozov, R.V. n. NS. - steles, lintels, reliefs and panels (as well as hieroglyphic inscriptions on them) are memorial monuments in honor of the deeds of the Mayan rulers. They tell about the birth, accession to the throne, wars and conquests, dynastic marriages, ritual ceremonies and other important events in the life of the secular rulers of nearly two dozen city-states that existed, according to archeology, in the Central Maya region in the 1st millennium AD. NS.

The purpose of some pyramidal temples in Mayan cities is now defined in a completely different way. If before they were considered sanctuaries of the most important gods of the pantheon, and the pyramid itself was only a high and monolithic stone pedestal for the temple, then recently, under the foundations and in the thickness of a number of such pyramids, it was possible to find magnificent tombs of kings and members of ruling dynasties (the discovery of A. Rus in the Temple Inscriptions, Palenque, etc.).

New in Mayan Cities Research

Noticeable changes have undergone in recent years and ideas about the nature, structure and functions of the large Mayan "centers" of the 1st millennium AD. NS. Extensive studies by US archaeologists in Tikal, Tsibilchaltun, Etzna, Seibal, Bekan, and others have revealed the presence there of a significant and permanent population, handicraft production, imported products and many other features and characteristics inherent in ancient city both in the Old and New Worlds.

A real sensation in Mayan studies was the discovery by the American researcher Michael Ko of polychrome painted ceramics from the most magnificent burials of Mayan aristocrats and rulers of the 1st millennium AD. NS. Comparing the plots presented on these clay vases with the descriptions of the exploits of the twin heroes in the underworld from the Maya-Quiche epic Popol-Vuh (16th century), the scientist drew attention to their partial coincidence. This allowed Ko to assume that the images and inscriptions on each vessel describe the death of the Mayan ruler, the long journey of his soul through the terrible labyrinths of the kingdom of the dead, overcoming various obstacles and the subsequent resurrection of the ruler, who ultimately turned into one of the heavenly gods. All the twists and turns of this dangerous journey completely repeated the myth of the adventures of twin heroes in the underworld from the Popol Vuh epic. In addition, the American researcher found that the inscriptions or their individual parts, presented on almost all painted polychrome vases of the 6th-9th centuries. n. e., are often repeated, that is, they have a standard character. The reading of these "standard inscriptions" (the so-called formula of revival) was successfully carried out by the Soviet scientist Yu. V. Knorozov. Thanks to this, a completely new, previously unknown world has now opened up before us - the mythological ideas of the ancient Maya, their concept of life and death, religious beliefs and much more. - a more detailed characteristic.

Aztec civilization

State formation

After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico for many decades becomes the arena of dramatic and turbulent events: more and more waves of warlike barbarian tribes "Chichimecs" invade here from the north and north-west, sweeping away the remaining islands of the Teotihuacan civilization in Askapozalco, Portezuelo, Cholula and Tolula. Finally, at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. As a result of the merger of these two streams - alien ("Chichimec") and local (Teotihuacan) - in the northeast of the region, a powerful state of the Toltecs emerges with its center in the city of Tule-Tollana (Hidalgo, Mexico).

But this state formation turned out to be short-lived. In 1160, an invasion of new groups of barbarians from the north crushed Tollan and marked the beginning of another period of instability in the political history of Mesoamerica. Among the warlike newcomers were the tenochki-Aztecs (Astecs), a semi-barbarian tribe, directed to search for a better life by the instructions of their tribal god Huitzilopochtli. According to legend, it was the divine providence that predetermined the choice of the site for the construction of the future Aztec capital - Tenochtitlan in 1325: on the deserted islands in the western part of the vast Lake Texcoco. At this time, in the valley of Mexico City, several city-states were fighting for leadership, among which the more powerful Ascapotsalco and Culhuacan stood out. The Aztecs intervened in these intricacies of local politics, acting as mercenaries from the most powerful and successful masters.

In 1427, the Aztecs organized a "triple league" - an alliance of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan (Takuba) - and set about the consistent conquest of adjacent regions. By the time the Spaniards arrived at the beginning of the 16th century. the so-called Aztec empire covered a huge territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km - with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico.

Capital of the Aztecs - Tenochtitlan

The capital of the "empire" - Tenochtitlan - over time turned into a huge city, the area of ​​which was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people. This island city was connected to the mainland by three large stone dam roads, and there was a whole flotilla of canoe boats. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. The core of the city was formed by its ritual and administrative center: the "sacred site" - a 400 m long walled square, inside which were the main city temples ("Templo Major" - the temple with the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the temple of Quetzalcoatl, etc.), the dwellings of the priests , schools, playground for ritual ball games. Nearby were the ensembles of the magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers - "tlatoani". According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma II (more precisely, Moctezuma) had up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths.

Around the center were crowded residential quarters inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, and soldiers. The huge Main Market and the smaller quarter bazaars traded in local and imported food and goods. The general impression of the magnificent Aztec capital is well conveyed by the words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest - the soldier Bernal Diaz del Castillo from the Cortez detachment. Standing on top of a high stepped pyramid, the conquistador looked in amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of the life of a huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various loads, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and from house to house you could only get through suspension bridges or boats. And we saw ... pagan temples and chapels, reminiscent of towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with white and aroused admiration. "

The fall of the empire

Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortez after a three-month siege and a fierce struggle in 1521. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built a new city - Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of their colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of the Aztec buildings were covered with multi-meter strata of modern life. Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct systematic and extensive archaeological research of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally in the course of excavation in the center of Mexico City are stone sculptures born - the creations of ancient masters.

Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s and 80s became a real sensation. XX century during the excavation of the Main Temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, on Zocalo Square, between the Cathedral and the Presidential Palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun and war, the head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings, stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly distinguished are a round stone with a diameter of over three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Koyolshauhka - the sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pits-hiding places filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people, etc.) etc.). The newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded the existing ideas about Material culture, religion, trade, economic and political relations of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state in the late 15th - early 16th centuries.

Civilizations of South America

What tribes and nationalities inhabited in ancient times Peru? The vast majority believe that they were the Incas. And it seems right. When in 1532 the Spanish conquistadors set foot on Peruvian land, the whole country, as well as Ecuador, Bolivia and Northern Chile, were part of the giant Inca Empire, or, as the Incas themselves called their state, Tahuantinsuyu. The total length of Tahuantinsuyu along the Pacific coast was over 4,300 km, and the population was at least 6 million. However, the Incas were only the outer facade of ancient Peru, behind which, as in Egypt or Mesopotamia, a long and glorious past was hidden.

Early civilizations - Chavin, Mochica, Nazca, Tiahuanaco, Chimu

At the end of the II millennium BC. NS. in the mountains of the northeastern regions of the country, the mysterious Chavin culture suddenly appeared, synchronous with the "Olmec" monuments of Mesoamerica and close to them in character (the cult of the feline predator - jaguar or cougar, stone pyramidal temples, elegant ceramics, etc.). Since the turn of our era, in the coastal zone of Peru, the Mochica civilization appears in the north, and the Nazca civilization in the south. Simultaneously with them, or a little later, in the mountains of Bolivia and southern Peru, a dynamic and original culture of Tiahuanaco was formed (named after its central settlement - Tiahuanaco, near south coast lake Titicaca). What is characteristic of all the named early Peruvian-Bolivian civilizations?

First of all, they were born independently, at the same time or almost simultaneously with the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica, but without any noticeable ties with them. Further, although the ancient Peruvians did not create a hieroglyphic script or a complex calendar, their technology was generally better than that of the people of Mesoamerica. At a time when the Mesoamericans still lived entirely in the Stone Age, the Indians of Peru and Bolivia from the II millennium BC. NS. knew metallurgy, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys, and made of them not only jewelry and weapons, but (as in the case of copper) even the tips of agricultural tools - "digging sticks" and hoes. They, especially the creators of the Mochica culture, made magnificent ceramics with polychrome painting and figured modeling. Their cotton and wool fabrics were delicate and perfect. But especially elegant types of these products - tapestries, decorative fabrics, brocade and muslin - have, perhaps, no equal in ancient world... Their beauty was only enhanced by the brightness of dyes prepared from various plants (for example, indigo) and minerals. These three important components of the local culture - metal products, ceramics and fabrics (well preserved in the dry and warm climate of the coast) - give a unique originality to all the named ancient Peruvian civilizations of the 1st millennium AD. NS.

The subsequent period (from the 10th century AD and later) was marked by an increase in the expansion of the population of mountainous regions (especially Tiahuanaco) into the Pacific coast zone. Then several new states arose here, the largest of which was Chimu, located in the north of this area, approximately from Timbeg to Lima. Its capital, Chan-Chan, occupied an area of ​​about 25 square meters. km and had a population of up to 25 thousand people. In the center of the city, there were ten huge rectangles 400 × 200 m, enclosed by walls 12 m high, - palace ensembles local kings. Around are smaller residences where officials, artisans and other groups of citizens lived. After the death of the king, they were buried in his palace with all the riches, and the successor built himself a new building, which looked more like a castle or fortress than an ordinary house. It was in Chimu that an integrated network of irrigation canals was first created and roads were built connecting the mountains and the coast. This, in turn, explains both the impressive achievements of local culture and the significant concentration of the population in cities and villages.

Inca state

At the same time, in the mountainous zone with its rugged relief, a large number of valleys and rivers almost isolated from each other, a number of small warring states arose at the same time. But only one of them - the Inca state in the Cuzco valley - possessing a more perfect organization of the army and the apparatus of power and distinguished by the militancy of its inhabitants, managed to break the resistance of its neighbors and become the dominant force in the region. This happened just a century before the arrival of the Spaniards, in the 15th century. n. NS.

The size of the Inca empire grew at an unprecedented rate. Between 1438 and 1460 Inca Pachacuti conquered most of the mountainous regions of Peru. Under his son Topa Inca (1471-1493), a significant part of Ecuador and the territory of the state of Chimu were captured, and a little later - the south of the coastal Peruvian zone, the mountains of Bolivia, the north of Chile. The great power was headed by the divine ruler of the Sapa Inca, who was helped by the hereditary aristocracy associated with the ruler by blood relationship, as well as the priestly caste and a whole army of officials who controlled all aspects of life.

Rural communities bore a heavy burden of all kinds of taxes and labor duties (work on the construction of roads, temples and palaces, in mines, military service, etc.). The population of the newly conquered lands was forcibly displaced from their native places to remote provinces. The empire was connected by an extensive network of stone-paved roads, along which post stations with rest rooms and warehouses with food and necessary materials stood at certain distances. On the roads, both foot messengers-runners and riders on llamas ply regularly.

Spiritual life and cult issues were entirely in the hands of the priestly hierarchy. The worship of the creator god Viracoche and the celestial planets was carried out in stone temples, decorated with gold inside. Depending on the circumstances, sacrifices to the gods ranged from the usual in such cases llama meat and maize beer to the murder of women and children (during the illness or death of the supreme Inca).

However, this largest and best-organized empire in pre-Columbian America was easy prey for a handful of Spanish adventurers led by Francisco Pizarro in the 16th century. n. NS. The murder of the Inca Atahualpa in 1532 paralyzed the will to resist the local Indians, and the powerful Inca state collapsed in a matter of days under the blows of the European conquerors.

A little more than ten years ago, on October 12, 1992, one of the most significant dates in the history of mankind was celebrated on planet Earth - the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. There are many hypotheses about when in the Western Hemisphere, in the Americas, on numerous islands, a man appeared and when people came to the American continent. For the fifth century (since the 16th century), scholars have been debating this issue. In numerous studies on this topic, among the first inhabitants of America, they call Canary Islands, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, ancient Greeks and Romans, Jews, Spaniards, Egyptians and Babylonians, Chinese and even Tatars and Scythians.

Science developed, and as new discoveries accumulated knowledge, there was a selection of hypotheses. Today there is no longer any doubt that the part of the world, designated on the world map as America, was inhabited by immigrants from other continents. However, with which ones - it has not been finally decided. Nevertheless, scientists were able to identify many common features inherent in all Indians, bringing them closer to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. Appearance Native Americans at the time of their first encounters with Europeans was as follows: stocky figure, short legs, medium-sized feet, rather long, but with small hands, a high and usually wide forehead, poorly developed brow ridges. The face of the Indian had a large, strongly protruding nose (often, especially in the north, the so-called aquiline), a rather large mouth. The eyes are usually dark brown. Hair is black, straight, thick.

In many of the first European documentary and literary sources, it was indicated that the Indians were red. In fact, this is not true. The skin of representatives of all kinds of Indian tribes is rather yellow-brown. According to modern researchers, the first settlers gave them the name "redskins". It did not arise by chance. The North American Indians once had the custom of rubbing their face and body with red ocher on solemn occasions. Therefore, the Europeans called them red.

Currently, anthropologists distinguish three main groups of Indians - North American, South American and Central American, whose representatives differ among themselves in height, skin color and other characteristics.

Most researchers believe that the settlement of the American continent came from Asia through the Bering Strait. Scientists believe that four great glaciers helped ancient people to overcome the water space. According to this hypothesis, during the glaciation, the Bering Strait froze over and turned into a kind of huge bridge. Asian tribes, who led a nomadic way of life, freely moved along it to the neighboring continent. Based on this, the time of the appearance of man on the American continent has been determined - this happened 10-30 thousand years ago.

By the time the Spanish caravels appeared under the command of Christopher Columbus off the eastern coast of the New World (October 1492), North and South America, including the islands of the West Indies, was inhabited by many tribes and nationalities. With the light hand of the famous navigator, who assumed that he had discovered new lands in India, they began to be called Indians. These tribes were at different levels of development. According to most researchers, before the European conquest, the most developed civilizations of the Western Hemisphere were formed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The term "Mesoamerica" ​​was introduced in the 40s of the XX century by the German scientist Paul Kirgoff. Since then, in archeology, this is the designation for a geographic region that includes Mexico and most of Central America (up to the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica). It was this territory that, at the time of its discovery by the Europeans, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and presented a different picture of the cultures they represented. According to the correct definition of the Czech Americanist Miloslav Stingl, "these cultures were at different stages of the development of a tribal society, and the general laws of evolution characteristic of the primitive communal formation manifested themselves here in a multitude of local variants and forms." Among the brightest and most developed civilizations of Ancient America (pre-Columbian period), scientists include such cultures as Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Toltec and Aztec.

The study of the art of Ancient America and its history is comparatively young. It is a little over a hundred years old. Researchers-Americanists at the present time do not have such a rich material and achievements that are available today in the study of ancient art. They also experience great difficulties in connection with the fact that in order to support their conclusions obtained as a result of archaeological site and discoveries, do not have so many monuments of writing, which are, for example, at the disposal of researchers of the Ancient East. Among the ancient Americans, writing appeared much later and never reached a high level of development. The written monuments of the peoples of Mesoamerica that have come down to us have not yet been sufficiently studied. Therefore, most of the information regarding political history, social structure, mythology, conquests, titles and names of rulers is based only on Indian legends. Many of them were recorded after the Spanish conquest and date back to the first half of the 16th century. It is also important to remember that up to this time, ancient American civilizations developed without any influence from European or Asian centers. Until the 16th century, their development proceeded completely independently.

The art of Ancient America, like any other art, has a number of features and characteristics, inherent only in it. In order to comprehend this originality, a dialectical approach is needed, taking into account the historical conditions under which art and culture developed. ancient civilizations Mesoamerica.

Scientists attribute the highest flowering of the culture of the Mayan Indian tribe to the 7th-8th centuries. The Aztec empire reached its apogee by the beginning of the 16th century. Very often, in the works of archaeologists and researchers of ancient cultural civilizations, the Mayan Indian peoples (as older in age) are called by analogy "Greeks", and the Aztecs (as they existed later) - the "Romans" of the New World.

The cultural traditions of the Maya Indians had a huge impact on the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and Salva Dor, as well as in several states of modern Mexico. The geographical boundaries of this civilization were 325,000 km2 and covered the habitat of several tens, and possibly hundreds of tribes. In general, the tribes inherited a single culture. However, in many respects it had, of course, regional features.

The Maya civilization stood out primarily for its achievements in construction and architecture. Representatives of this nation created exquisite and perfect works of painting and sculpture, had unique masters in stone processing and making ceramics. The Maya had a deep knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Their greatest achievement is the introduction of such a mathematical concept as "zero". They began to use it hundreds of years earlier than other highly developed civilizations.

The Aztecs appeared in Central Mexico in the second half of the 12th century. Until this time, no historical data has been found about them. There are only a few legends and traditions from which it is known that they called the island Aztlan (Astlan) their homeland. One of the traditional descriptions of the supposed life of ancestors in Aztlan is known, allegedly compiled for the last of the pre-Hispanic rulers of the Aztec state, the famous Montezuma II the Younger, on the basis of ancient manuscripts. According to this source, the ancestral home of Aztlan was located on an island (or represented an island), where there was a large mountain with caves that served as dwellings. From this word, designating the location of the island (Aztlan), the name of the tribe originated - the Aztecs (more precisely, the Astecs). However, science has not yet established the exact geographical position of this island.

In the earliest stages of their existence, the Aztecs were dominated by a nomadic lifestyle, they were mainly engaged in hunting. This left an imprint on their character. By their nature, they were very belligerent. For almost two centuries, the Az-Tecs waged wars of conquest and at the beginning of the XIV century, having conquered many other tribes that lived in Central Mexico, created a powerful empire. Around 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), which they founded, became its capital.

At present, interest in the study of the most ancient Indian civilizations has not faded away. Monuments of architecture, sculpture, jewelry, household items found in places where peoples with an original, unique culture lived several millennia ago, conceal a lot of unsolved. Learning the history of pre-Columbian America, the leading archaeologists and scientists of our time are trying to find an explanation for many of the most important aspects of the life of ancient human communities.