Chichen Itza story. Chichen Itza, Mexico: the legacy of the ancient Mayans and Toltecs

In which country is Chichen Itza located? Of course, in Mexico! Chichen Itza - one of the main ones. The ancient Mayan city, located on the Yucatan Peninsula, is known to everyone who comes to this magical land. The pyramids of the ancient Maya and Toltecs, numerous architectural monuments and proximity to - all this annually attracts millions of tourists from all over the world and makes Chichen Itza a real tourist capital of Mexico.

The pyramids and the ancient city of Chichen Itza in Mexico

Chichen Itza is an ancient city in the north of Mexico, located on the Yucatan Peninsula. These places were inhabited by the ancient inhabitants of the Maya and Toltecs. At dawn, the population of the ancient city of Chichen Itza was 10 thousand, although some scientists believe that this number should be 2, or even 3 times more. It is now included in the UNESCO legacy. Ancient sites are carefully guarded.

The architecture of the city dates back to the period from VI to XIII centuries. The Spaniards dismantled most of the ancient cities for building materials, but they did not touch Chechen Itza. You can admire the view at any time of the year. Unofficially, Chechen Itza is called the eighth wonder of the world. Working hours from 8.00 to 18.00. Entry costs 220 Mexican pesos, and guide services 750 pesos. Children under 12 do not need a ticket.

Chichen Itza is located in North America, Mexico. On the map you need to find the Yucatan Peninsula, where the city is located. Neighbors of Chechen Itza are cities, Cancun and these are also popular tourist places. To get to these places by plane, you need to fly to the nearest airport of international importance. Flights are made both from Europe and directly from the capital of the Russian Federation, Moscow.

The map also allows you to notice the main goal of many tourists - the pyramid of Kukulkan. On the left side of it, 100 meters away, there is the entrance to the city of Chechen Itza itself. There is also a parking lot nearby.

How to get from Cancun

To get to the city from Cancun, tourists and guests of the peninsula can use several available ways. For example:

1. The bus is the most practical means of transport. The journey will take a little more than 3 hours. Served by the carrier ADO. The ticket price is from 10 € to 16 €.
2. From 30 € to 40 € a transfer order will cost. The car can pick up immediately from the airport, or from another place of stay, for example from a hotel.
3. By renting a car, you can get there more comfortably and faster. The journey will take only 2 hours. To Chichen Itza you need to drive 200 km, which will take 16 liters of fuel. Gasoline will cost about 20 €.

Comfortable guided tour

Taking into account the cost of the transfer and tickets, the most profitable option to visit Chichen Itza is to order an excursion. For example, you can visit several attractions at once on a comfortable minibus with a Russian-speaking guide.

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How to get from other regions

There is the same bus from Merida as from Cancun, it costs 6 €. From Valladolid, you can easily get there by shuttle bus.

History of the city of Chichen Itza

The name has been widely used since the reign of the Mayan tribes. Translated from local languages, Chichen Itza can be translated as "At the mouth of the well Itza", or "The mouth of the well of the sorcerers of water." A piece of Chi indicates a mouth or edge, chen means a source or well. Itza is an ancient people who ruled the entire region near the city. The word Itza itself is often translated as "sorcerer". If split into two, Itz is a sorcerer, and ha is water.

The ancient documents available to us show that there are other variants of the name of the city. For example, this is evidenced by the data of the Chilam-Bilam code. At the same time, it is not the complete discovery of the ancient dialect that hinders the establishment of the name of the city before the arrival of Itza. Today, several long-standing names are known: Yuuk Yabnal, (Seven Great Houses), Yuuk Hab Nal (Seven Bushes), Yuukuabnal (Seven Great Rulers) and Uk Abnal (Seven Paths of Abnal).

Discovery history

The history can be divided into two periods. The first lasted from the 7th to the 10th century, when the city belonged to the Mayan tribe. The second began with the conquest of the area by the Toltecs in the 10th century. The 11th century was marked by the granting of the status of the capital of the Toltec lands. But the city on the throne did not last long. The Mayans decided to retake the city. Hunak Keel gathered a skilled army from the cities of Mayapan, Uxmal and Itzmal. He led a campaign against Chichen Itza, which led to success in 1178.

Later, due to unknown reasons, the city was completely destroyed and was in desolation. This happened in 1194. Although the Spaniards destroyed all the documents of the ancient tribes, historians have established that the frequent attacks on the city weakened the people. The upper strata of society dispersed to other places. From Spanish records it was established that the Indians went on a pilgrimage to the ruins of the ancient city. Since the 15th century, the territory has been used as pasture for livestock. It is unknown why the city was deserted. Some researchers talk about a terrible famine, others about a bloody war.

There is also an opinion that a terrible epidemic has hit the residents and that the virus is still under the ruins of the city.

Anyway, everything changed with the arrival of the Spaniards. The 18th century was marked by various research and archaeological excavations. Even then, many artists and photographers came to capture the unique wealth of the Maya. And since the middle of the last century, the government of Mexico issued a decree to globally restore the city of Chechen Itza to its original appearance. All possible work was carried out and now it is an extremely popular place.

Attractions Chichen Itza

In the city of Chichen Itza, there is a huge number of places of interest for tourists. If you come here as part of an excursion program, an experienced guide will tell you in detail about each attraction. In this article, we will provide a quick overview of the main landmarks that you simply cannot miss.

There are many interesting things in the city, but the pyramid of Kukulkan stands out among all the famous places. The pyramid is one of the surviving ancient architectural structures of the ancient tribes. In Spanish, there are such names: Pirámide de Kukulkán, Templo de Kukulkán, "El Castillo". This is the name of the ancient pyramid of the feathered serpent. Kukulcan is a god similar to Quetzaglioatl. The object immerses in the time of the Mayan tribe. You can learn many exciting stories and retellings of how the worship of wondrous deities was carried out here. In their religions, blood was shed and brutal rites were performed to appease objects of worship. In fact, the pyramid is a sacred temple.

The pyramid is located in the center of a large area of \u200b\u200b18 hectares. The temple is surrounded by a wide parapet made of stones. The size of the building itself is also impressive. The height is 24 meters, and if we take the summit, then all 30. The length of each side is 55 meters. All faces of the pyramid have 9 steps. There are steep stairs on each of the four sides, walking along which you can get to the top. The stairs are also oriented to the cardinal points. Each of them has 91 degrees, the total number of steps is 364. And if you add to this number the platform at the top, which unites 4 stairs, you get 365 - which means the number of days of the solar year.

The edges of the stairs are a stone fence in the form of a serpent, whose head is at the bottom and the body goes to the top. The size of the snake is 37 meters. An amazing show takes place here several days a year. When the autumn and spring equinox comes, the shadow of the steps falls on the stones of the balustrade. At the same time, it seems that the Feathered Serpent is not just a sculpture, but a real reptile moving along a course. In the spring in March, the impression is made that the kite is moving upward, and in the fall in September it is downward. This action lasts 3 hours and 22 minutes.

It is noteworthy that the stairs are cut in two, that is, the number of sections on each side of the pyramid is 18. This number is symbolic and indicates the same number of months in the calendar year of the Mayan tribes.

The temple has 9 ledges and this is no coincidence. The Toltecs had their own beliefs about the "nine heavens". Each wall of the temple has 52 stone reliefs, which means 52 years - the Toltec calendar cycle.

Ruins of Chac-Mul in the north (Chacmools)

Ruins of Chuck-Mul

This landmark in Chichen Itza includes sculptures that will impress you. Altars, Atlantean statues and stone paintings can be seen. The architecture amazes the eye of the visitor.

Temple of the Warriors

Temple of Warriors

This is also a unique building. It has been remarkably preserved. The visit encourages you to admire the ancient people, their approach to business. The atmosphere allows you to feel yourself in the distant past. This is never forgotten.

The Hall of the Thousand Columns

In ancient times, this alley was a trade street. In the market, clever tribes even built a roof so that the weather would not interfere with trade. Previously, the building had a large hall. There were rows of iron and ceramics articles. You could also buy simple things for everyday life. He was near a large market.

Wall of Skulls (Tzompantli)

Although the name emanates from some kind of mysticism and horror, the picture of this object shows the opposite. The rock art that is here is unique. Picturesque patterns and beautiful composition are of great interest. At the same time, it is not fully known how ancient people used the Wall of Skulls.

Stadium (The Ball Courts)

Many people do not know that even before the invention of football by the British, the ancient Mayans used a similar ball game with might and main. The stadium was built over 3000 years ago. Of course, the purpose is very different from modern sports facilities. Then at the stadium, people performed religious rituals. And the losing football team immediately lost its life. They were executed and sacrificed to deities. A terrible picture is that the height of the walls did not allow the players to escape from the sad fate. And the leaders watched this picture from above. It is also creepy that a skull was used instead of a ball.

Chichen Itza has 7 sports facilities. The largest stadium is called "Huego de Pelota" (translated as "Large field for the ball game"). The length of this field is 135 meters.

After visiting amazing sites of ancient culture, stadiums seem like a rather boring place.

Temple of the Jaguars

This is not to say that this temple is something really unusual. The building is rather small. Most worth seeing is the jaguar sculpture that stands in front of the temple. This is the most significant attraction of the temple, except for it there are no other features in the Jaguar Temple.

Old Chichén pyramid

The name Old Chichen was not given for nothing - this building is one of the oldest in the city. The appearance of the pyramid is also amazing. She is beheaded. Nature has contributed to this. In the course of the ancient hurricane, the top was destroyed. The restored steps are striking in their beauty. Tourists would even like to climb a small pyramid, but this is not provided.

Observatory (Caracol)

Awesome building. I would like to consider it in detail from different angles. There is a tower near the observatory, which is certainly an interesting object. You won't be able to walk up the stairs here either.

Church (Nunnery)

This is an amazing building. At least according to the Mayan Chenes style. And this is the most picturesque style of the ancient Mayan tribes. Ornaments are striking in their sophistication. For a tourist, this place should be a must-see place.

Sacred Cenote

The sacred cenote is located right within the boundaries of the old city of Chechen Itza. You need to work hard to find such a desired object .. First you need to find the Chichen Itza park. Next, you need to leave behind the pyramid of Kukulkan and to the left of the Platforma de Venus ruins there will be a sign to the cenote. It is important to look carefully at the signs indicating the way. The cenote is a natural well. The depth is approximately 50 m. Used for sacrifices. Girls and children were thrown there, as well as various cult objects, asking the gods for rain.

Cenote Ik-Kil

Cenote Ik Kiel

The cenote is located just 5 kilometers from the city. You can get there along the highway 180. This is a very beautiful place, worth a separate trip. Mexico can be proud of such facilities.

Shops and shopping near Chichen Itza

The nearest shops to Chichen Itza are in Piste. Several grocery stores, butchers, restaurants and savings banks can be found here. Stores and addresses of their location on Dsitas-Piste street:

• Bootix de los mayas - handicraft supplies;
• Taller la escondida - at the intersection with 5th street;
• Las sobrinas de la tia - restaurant at the intersection with street 5-A;
• Pollaria Suemi - grocery store closer to the intersection with 7th street;
• Banco Azteca - between 7th and 9th streets;
• El Panal - at the intersection with 11th street;
• Novedades Y Regalos El Arca is a souvenir shop at 12th Street and 180th Highway.

There are 4 Mexican restaurants along Costera del Golfo highway 180, Marthas pizzeria at the intersection with 22nd Street, and Tecate Six beer shop closer to 18th Street.

The following shops and establishments are located along the 180th highway:

• Maxicarne - meat products, at 15-A street;
• Neveria Basulto - at the intersection with 8th Street;
• Balam House - a pizzeria at the intersection with street 6;
• Fruiteria Dorcy - food market, between 4th and 6th streets;
• Taller Mecanico “El Chino” - grocery store. Azteca - between 7th and 9th streets.

There are also museums, hotels and small hotels in Piste. Here you can buy everything you need at more affordable prices than in smaller resort towns. Souvenirs and foodstuffs are more profitable to purchase in larger cities. From Chichen Itza to Piste the distance is about two kilometers, so shopping is not a drudgery and will not take much time, even if you take a walk along the Merida-Valladorit highway. At a distance of 4 km on the opposite side of Piste, is the town of X-Kalakoop. There are several grocery stores, a bar, a restaurant and a home improvement store.

Also on the way, you can call in Libre Union, Citas, Tuncas, or in the larger city of Valladolite, where a choice of food, shops and other goods will help you make more varied and profitable purchases.

Book an excursion to Chichen Itza

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Chichen Itza is the grandiose center of the Mayan-Toltec civilization, which has absorbed the knowledge, beliefs and ideas of these peoples about the universe and the world around them. The city is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the pyramid of Kukulkan located here has been declared one of the new seven wonders of the world.

Entrance to the territory is 220 MXN, the cost of guide services is 750 MXN. The prices on the page are for November 2019.

Access is open from 8:00 to 17:00.

History and culture

The history of the city can be roughly divided into two periods: the first lasted from the 7th to the 10th century, when it belonged to the Maya, the second came in the 10th century after the Toltecs captured the territory. In the middle of the 11th century, Chichen Itza became the capital of the Toltec state, and in 1178 it was defeated by the united army of the rebellious Mayan tribe from three cities: Mayapan, Uxmal and Itzmal. For a reason that remained an unsolved mystery, at the end of the 12th century, the city was finally deserted. The buildings of Chichen Itza were gradually covered with a continuous carpet of thickets of tropical plants, until archaeological and restoration work began here in 1920.

The Toltecs worshiped a deity named Quetzacoatl or Kukulkan in the Mayan language, which means "feathered serpent", whose images are side by side here with the rain god Chak.

Currently, Chichen Itza is the most fully and qualitatively restored Mayan city, annually attracting a huge number of tourists.

Where is and how to get to Chichen Itza

From Merida in 1 hour 45 minutes and 200 MXN you will be taken by a first class bus. The second class will cost 120 MXN, the travel time is 2.5 hours. From Cancun it will be, respectively, 290 MXN and 2.5 hours for the first class and 200 MXN and 4.5 hours for the second.

• How to build a route between Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Ek Balam

Shopping

The complex has a large number of merchants offering various souvenirs and crafts. Be careful: besides the fact that they are intrusive and will try to attract attention in any way, their product is often of very poor quality.

There are also several shops where you can buy souvenirs, clothing and jewelry.

Popular hotels in Chichen Itza

Excursions, activities and attractions of Chichen Itza

Unfortunately, since the beginning of 2006, climbing structures has been prohibited, with the exception of a few specially marked places. Don't forget your hat and sunglasses - there is practically no shade in the daytime. And, of course, you can't do without comfortable shoes.

In the evening, the city is illuminated by the lights of a light and sound performance, during which a fairy tale narration in Spanish takes place. The night landscape leaves an unforgettable impression, but be prepared for the fact that you will have to return in complete darkness - it will not be superfluous to have a lantern with you. A ticket to the show costs 190 MXN.

Bring binoculars with you - there are a lot of wonderful birds in the area. And at night you can admire the sky, strewn with myriads of stars.

The complex also houses a small but fascinating museum.

Chichen Itza pyramids and temples

The pyramid of Kukulkan, or El Castillo, is a nine-step pyramid of 25 meters in height, in fact - a huge calendar: each of the steps is divided into 2 parts, forming 18 terraces symbolizing the 18 twenty-day months of the year.

On the days of the spring (March 21-22) and autumn (September 21-22) equinox, the play of sunlight and shadow creates on the western balustrade of the main staircase the illusion of a snake's body “crawling” along the movement of the sun towards its head, carved at the base of the stairs.

These days, Chichen Itza is so crowded that you can hardly get closer to get a good look at what is happening. A week before and another week after these dates, the effect of the image is almost the same.

Chichen Itza

El Caracol - a round temple located on a square platform served as an observatory. The dome windows are framed with images of various celestial bodies on specific dates. The large ball court (there are seven of them in total) is the largest of all created by the Mayans, its length is 135 meters. And the Sacred Cenote is a natural well with a depth of about 50 meters.

The Temple of Warriors (located on a low four-level pyramid) is decorated with images of sacred animals carved from stone. The top is crowned with the figure of the rain god. Nearby are the ruins of the baths, which had a mystical significance in the life of the Maya, as a way to purify body and soul.

March 19, 20 and 21 celebrate the days of "Leaning Kukulkan", at this time there are dance, music and theatrical performances.

Half past six in the morning. “When the alarm clock rings in the morning, it seems to me that they are shooting at me…”. So it seems to me, too, that I hear gunshots, and not a cute pop melody trying to wake me up. Why so early? Why ... Exactly! Today we are going to Chichen Itza - the famous complex of the ancient Mayan pyramids.

“If we don’t wake up right now, then we won’t leave early, if we don’t leave early, we won’t see Chichen Itza in the ringing purity of the coming day, but we’ll push shoulders with other tourists,” I lie and reason, trying to finally cheer up. Having a goal gives you an incentive - it works flawlessly. Climb!

A little over an hour later, Andryusiks and I are sitting in the collective, taking us to the "Mouth of the Water Sorcerers Well". Do not be afraid, this is not the direction we confused, this is how the name "Chichen Itza" is translated from the Mayan language.

In another forty minutes we find ourselves at the entrance to the archaeological zone, the first of the visitors to buy tickets and at exactly eight o'clock we overcome the turnstile separating us from the pyramids. The goal was achieved: we got to the complex by the very opening, when the bulk of tourists are still sleeping or are just coming from Cancun, Playa del Carmen and Merida. Nothing can replace these golden morning hours of silence and lonely walking through the ancient ruins.

Attractions Chichen Itza

Complex Chichen Itza (Chichén Itzá) is considered one of the main and favorite tourist attractions yucatan Peninsula... Why? We will deal with these a little later, but for now follow us, maybe you will understand everything yourself.

While you are reading it, Andryusiks and I are standing, examining the Sacred Cenote, and suddenly we see a bird on the tree. “So what?” You ask. And the fact that the bird is not easy, but one that we have repeatedly hunted, trying to photograph. Andryusiks even gave her a name - the Bird of Happiness.

And what do you think? Today he still manages to catch his Bird of Happiness!

On this optimistic note, we leave Chichen Itza and continue on to the cenote Ik Kil. But that's a completely different story.

Is Chichen Itza worthy of attention? No matter what, yes. This should not be missed, otherwise the situation will turn out a la "Come to Moscow and not see Red Square."

But there is one "but"... Remember when I said that Chichen Itza is very popular among tourists? Do you know what I have on this score? It seems to me that there are so many tourists here, because the Chichen Itza pyramids are the most accessible in the Yucatan. The most convenient way to get to them is from Cancun, and the entire Riviera Maya, Merida, Valladolid. Therefore, they are the most visited. I am not belittling the merits of this complex, but I also don’t think that it is indisputably the best in Mexico. Undoubtedly, if we compare this complex with the nearby Koboi or Ek-Balam, it wins both in scale and in importance. But we drove through more than half of Mexico, seeing Teotihuacan, Monte Alban, Uxmal, Palenque, Etzna and these pyramids impressed no less Chichen Itza, and some even several times more.

Enjoy your walks around Chichen Itza, dear readers!

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Worldwide interest in the heritage of the Mayan civilization continues unabated. Numerous religious and cult mysteries, gloomy predictions and the most accurate calendars, gigantic ruined cities, among which the most famous is Chichen Itza, invariably attract crowds of tourists and curious. The name itself Chichen Itza from the Mayan language it is translated as "the well of the Mayan tribe", due to the fact that there are 13 cenotes (natural wells) on the territory of the ancient city.

Chichen Itza: History of the City

Based on archaeological data and scraps of ancient chronicles, the researchers concluded that the famous Mayan city was founded in the 5-6 centuries AD. It immediately became the center of the Yucatan territory: political, religious, cultural. According to some reports (all statements regarding Chichen Itza are not confirmed and are hypotheses that require proof, which are almost impossible to find), from 20 to 30 thousand inhabitants permanently lived in the city. Countless number of pilgrims and wanderers, merchants and money changers visited this settlement every year.

In the 10th century, the Maya were conquered by the Taltecs, the city was partially plundered and left by most of the population. But life did not leave him. The decline falls on the 13th century from the birth of Christ. Buildings collapsed, people left Chichen Itza. Since the 15th century, herds of cattle have been grazing on a territory that was once rich, prosperous and populous.

For a long time, no one showed interest in the majestic and ominous ruins. From the middle of the 19th century, the passion for culture, astrology, and most importantly, the legendary riches of the Maya began. The site began scattered but numerous excavations, studies, artists and photographers from all over the world came to capture the bizarre buildings and mysterious temples.

In the second half of the last century, the Mexican government decided to restore (as far as possible) the original appearance of Chichen Itza. This place has become a Mecca for tourists.

In 2007, the ancient city Chichen Itza Mexico included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The Mayan city of Chichen Itza has been named one of the 7 New Wonders of the World. Tuzha might have hit, but not fate.

Chichen Itza, Mexico and the Artistic Value of the Ruins

The area of \u200b\u200bthe city is about 6 km. sq. The surviving architectural complexes are numerous and, if you study them in detail, consider each relief and column, one day to visit will not be enough. Unfortunately, excursions organized from Cancun are only one day. Spend the night in Chichen Itza nowhere, and creepy.

A professional guide will lead the group along the paved roads that have been perfectly preserved for fifteen centuries, and will show and tell about all the religious buildings of the city. The most significant and huge of them is pyramid Chichen Itza called Kukulkan "Feathered Serpent". The guide will entertain (and even scare someone) with legends about bloody sacrifices, cruelty and religious beliefs of an ancient tribe. The Temple of Warriors will amaze you with its realistic reliefs and sculptures; it is easy to get lost in the group of "a thousand columns". The "ball court" will surprise you with the size of its territory and will give you goosebumps with images of severed heads.

The excursion includes a visit to the sacred cenote, a natural reservoir with a diameter of 60 m. The depth is almost the same. There is evidence that the Maya threw girls and children into this "lake", as well as numerous objects of worship, asking their deities for rain.

Chichen Itza. Pyramid of Kukulkan (Castillo). 8-12 centuries. CHICHEN ITZA, city (8-12 centuries) of the Maya Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Temples, houses, sculptures, including the pyramid of Kukulkan. Chichen Itza is included in the World Heritage List ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Chichen Itza -\u003e). 8-12 centuries. /\u003e Chichen Itza. Pyramid of Kukulkan (). 8-12 centuries. Chichen Itza. Pyramid of Kukulkan (). 8-12 centuries. Chichen Itza is an ancient Mayan and Toltec city on the Yucatan Peninsula (). Founded in the VIII century. At the end of the XI century. the Toltecs captured the city, erected temples ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"

CHICHEN ITZA, city (8-12 centuries) of the Maya Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Temples, houses, sculptures, including the pyramid of Kukulkan. Chichen Itza is included in the World Heritage List ... Modern encyclopedia

- (Chichen Itza), an ancient Mayan city in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (on the territory of modern Mexico). Founded, probably in the 8th century. n. e. In the XI XII centuries. the capital of the Toltec state. By the time of the Spanish conquest, it was ... ... Art encyclopedia

- (Chichen Itza) city (8th - 12th centuries) of the Maya Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Temples, houses, sculptures, etc. Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The ancient city of the Mayans and Toltecs on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Founded in the 8th century. At the end of the 11th century. the Toltecs captured the city, erected temples (which combine the architectural styles of the Maya and Toltecs), houses, sculptures. The famous pyramid of Kukulkan. ... ... Historical Dictionary

Coordinates: 20 ° 40'58 ″ s. sh. 88 ° 34′09 ″ W d. / 20.682778 ° N sh. 88.569167 ° W etc ... Wikipedia

Chichen Itza - Chichen Itza. The statue of the god Chuck Mool in front of the "Temple of the Warriors". Chichén Itzá, an ancient Mayan city on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico), the Mayan capital of the Toltec state (XI XII centuries). Founded in the 8th century. Ruins of buildings of classical and ... ... Encyclopedic reference book "Latin America"

- (Chichén Itzá), city of VIII XII centuries. Mayan Indians in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Temples on stepped pyramids, ball courts, an observatory, sculpture, etc. * * * CHICHEN ITZA CHICHEN ITZA, a city (8th-12th centuries) of Indians ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Chichén Itzá) Mayan political and cultural center in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). Founded probably in the 8th century. n. e. In the 10th century. was captured by the Toltecs (See Toltecs). From the middle of the 11th century. Ch. I. became the capital of the Toltec state. In 1178 ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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