The history of the discovery and development of australia oceania. Chapter XIV
These landforms were discovered only in the middle of the twentieth century, thanks to the echolocation method. They form a single system with a total length of 60,000 km and a relative height of up to 4 km. The regions of their distribution belong to the seismic regions of the Earth.
1) what are these landforms called?
2) What movements of the earth's crust occur within these landforms?
3) How does the age of the earth's crust change from the axial zone of landforms to the edges?
4) How can this be explained?
5) What are the names of the hydrothermal vents on their slopes?
6) Which country should you travel to to see what the surface of these landforms looks like?
7) What island of origin is it on?
8) What is the most active volcano located on this island?
9) In which city will your plane land?
relief features of Australia. 5) Why Australia doesn't have big rivers. 6) In what climatic zones are most of the islands of Oceania located. 7) List the endemics of Oceania. 8) List the endemics of Australia. 9) What is an atoll. 10) What is scrub.
What part of the Asian circumpolar North was discovered by Russian explorers?a) the coast of the Kara Sea and the Laptev Sea
b) the coast of the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea and the Severnaya Zemlya Island
c) the coast of the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, the islands of Severnaya Zemlya and the New Siberian Islands
d) the entire Asian circumpolar North was discovered by Russian researchers
Determine which islands we are talking about and answer additional questions:
This archipelago was discovered in September 1913 near the extreme point of one of the continents, the expedition of which had completely different goals ... At first it was named after two ships, then it was renamed in honor of the reigning emperor, and in 1926 the final name was established, which emphasizes its geographical position. The area of the archipelago is about 37 thousand square meters. km. This is more than the area of Belgium and Albania, slightly less than the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland ... The archipelago consists of many islands, but there are four large ones. Their names reflected the peculiarities of the political system of the country to which these islands belong, at that time. These islands could have been discovered earlier, but the expeditions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries did not notice them. The harsh natural conditions prevented the settlement of the islands. And today, they are uninhabited.
Name:
1. What is the name of this archipelago today;
2. The 4 largest islands in its composition.
3. the original name of the archipelago and the names of the ships;
4. the name of the leader of the expedition and the geographical feature named in his honor;
5. purpose of the expedition;
6.the name of the islands from 1914 to 1926;
7. what is the severity of natural conditions;
8. the names of 2 sailors who, at the end of the 19th, the beginning of the 20th century, could have discovered these islands, but "did not notice" them, passing by;
9. seas surrounding this archipelago;
10. after whom one of them is named.
- Oceans of Steel
YouTube: Alekseev - Oceans of Steel
Melting in the wind, so what?
We fly into millions of pieces.
I found you from a thousand wild moons
I like it so much.
I like the road pulse,
I love your clouds.
Do not breathe so much for them well, let them,
And this magical sunset.
I like it, I like it.
Let's go crazy for each other.
They thought we would fall oceans of steel
I like it, I like it.
Let's go crazy for each other.
Kiss, because I can't do it without you.
I endlessly want to breathe you.
And my fire will never end.
Hold me, I can't cope without you.
Burn to ashes, I like it in your hands.
They thought we would fall oceans of steel
I like it, I like it.
Let's go crazy for each other.
Kiss, because I can't do it without you.
Kiss, because I can't cope without you ...
Oceans have become
I like it, I like it ...
I found you…
They became oceans, they became oceans ...
They thought we would fall oceans of steel
I like it, I like it.
Let's go crazy for each other.
Kiss, because I can't do it without you.
They thought we would fall oceans of steel
I like it, I like it.
Let's go crazy for each other.
Kiss, because I can't do it without you.
The premiere of the song is October 4, 2016.
Music by K. Pavlov
Lyrics by: K. Pavlov
Arrangement: Mikhail Koshevoy
The plot of the clip resembles an action movie, in the center of which is a story about indigo people. The idea was inspired by the mysterious dream of ALEKSEEV, which inspired the eminent director Alan Badoev.
A few days before filming, I dreamed that I was walking down the corridor and opening doors with my eyes, many doors. I woke up when the door opened in the room. At home I was alone! - share ALEKSEEV. - That feeling when you do not understand, this is still a dream or already in reality, a thin line between two worlds. On the same day I told this story to Alan and he had an idea for a video. "
In the center of the plot ALEKSEEV and his girlfriend are extraordinary indigo people who are locked in a special institute. But their energy and strength is much more powerful than all those frames and walls in which they have to be. In order to free themselves, they need to prove to the professor their most important super-ability, which is not given to everyone - to love!
The history of the ethnographic study of Oceania by bourgeois science is only one side of the history of the colonial policy of the states of Europe and America in the South Pacific. The stages of scientific exploration of Oceania reflect periods in the history of colonial conquests.
General prerequisites
Who were the explorers of Oceania? They were either European sailors who went to the discovery of new lands in order to annex them to the possessions of their states; or colonial traders, pirates, government officials and agents; or missionaries who paved the way for the seizure of new lands; or, finally, professional scientists. The latter could set themselves purely scientific goals, but objectively, the activities of most of them served the same task: to consolidate the rule of the colonialists in the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and in many cases they themselves were perfectly aware of this.
This circumstance does not, of course, deprive the scientific interest of the factual material that we find in numerous ethnographic descriptions of the peoples of Oceania. On the contrary, this material is of great scientific value. But when using it, the Soviet researcher and the Soviet reader should not lose sight of the need for a strictly critical attitude towards him, since these ethnographic descriptions are far from always objective.
First voyages
For the first time, Europeans appeared in the Pacific Ocean at the beginning of the 16th century. Fernand Magellan, a Portuguese sailor in the Spanish service, set out in 1519 in search of the western sea route to India. Having reached from Spain to the coast of South America and passing the strait, which was later named after him, he was the first of the Europeans to enter the Pacific Ocean.
In January 1521 he discovered an uninhabited atoll in the northern part of the Tuamotu (Paumotu) group, in February - another atoll in the southern part of the Marquesas Islands. Keeping a course to the northwest, Magellan passed between the main group of Polynesian islands and the Hawaiian Islands and on March 6 of the same year arrived at Guam (one of the Mariana Islands). He then took his ships to the Philippines.
Magellan's companion, Antonio Pigafetta, left in his notes a brief but interesting description of the inhabitants of Guam. Pigafetta can be considered the first ethnographer of Oceania. However, his description is sketchy and extremely superficial.
In 1526, Europeans entered the Pacific Ocean from the west. The Portuguese Georg de Menezes sailed from Malacca to the Moluccas, but the wind drove his ship to the shore of an unknown land. Menezes called this land by the name "Papua" (from the Malay " Tanah Reria "-" land of curly-haired "). This was New Guinea.
Having conquered Mexico, the Spaniards established a sea link between Spanish America and the Philippines, Spain's main base in Southeast Asia. In 1542 the Spaniard Villalobos, on his way from Mexico to the Philippines, discovered the islands of Palau (Pelau). Even earlier (1528 and 1529), as a result of unsuccessful attempts by the Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra to return from the Philippines back to Mexico, some of the islands in the Caroline and Marshall group were discovered.
In the second half of the XVI century. voyages from the shores of Spanish America to the islands of Southeast Asia turned into regular voyages. Considering the direction of winds and sea currents, Spanish ships sailed to the Philippines in the tropics, and made their way back in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, rising beyond the thirtieth and even thirty-fifth parallel.
A number of discoveries were made during the voyages of the Spaniards to the Philippines from Deru.
In 1568, Alvaro Mendanha de Neira discovered the Solomon Islands.<Он дал им это название, полагая, что нашел источник, откуда царь Соломон получал золото. Позднее, в 1595 г., он вновь отправился на поиски этих островов, но на этот раз безрезультатно. Зато он открыл группу островов, названных им Маркизскими, ряд островов из группы Токелау (Юнион) и один остров из группы Санта-Крус. В этой экспедиции принимал участие капитан Кирос; после смерти Менданьи на острове Санта-Крус во главе экспедиции стал Кирос.
Ten years later, Kyros again went on a journey with Luis Torres. They discovered the islands of Tuamotu, Tahiti, Manihiki and one of the group of New Hebrides (Espiritu: Santo, or. Island of the Holy Spirit). From here, Kyros returned back to Peru, while Torres continued his voyage to the Philippines. He discovered the Louisiada Islands, as well as the strait between New Guinea and Australia, named after him.
This is the end of the period of Spanish discoveries in Oceania. Spain by this time had lost its maritime power. Dutch ships now appear in the waters of the Pacific. Lemaire and Scouten (1616) discover several small islands north of the Tonga archipelago, see New Britain, but mistake it for part of New Guinea. Abel "Tasman in 1642-1643 discovers Tasmania, New Zealand, Tonga, Fiji; sees New Ireland, but also takes it for part of New Guinea.
Ships of Europeans continue to sail the waters of the Pacific Ocean. ] In 1699, an English sailor and pirate Dampier set off on a warship in Oceania to find out the extent of Australia to the east. But the most important discoveries he makes in the area of the Bismarck archipelago, in particular, for the first time establishes that New Britain is an independent island, and not part of New Guinea. The strait separating Dova Britain from New Guinea is named after him.
Early ethnographic information (until the end of the 18th century)
XVI-XVII centuries did not give any detailed descriptions of the islands. The sailors' stories were very inaccurate in geographical indications, there was no information about the local residents in them. It can be noted, as a certain exception to this whole gray picture, the book of Father Gobien (1700), which contains information about the indigenous inhabitants of the Mariana Islands - the Chamorro, now completely exterminated. Therefore, Gobien's book, along with the later work of the Frenchman Freycie (early 19th century), remains a valuable source on the ethnography of the Mariana Islands.
In 1642-1766, except for the aforementioned travels of Dampier and the travels of the Dutchman Roggeven, who discovered Easter Island and Samoa in 1722, no major geographical discoveries were made in Oceania. Spain and Holland could no longer count on the seizure of new lands. England and France tried to gain a foothold in America, India, fought among themselves for these areas and did not send expeditions to Oceania.
French and English expeditions of the 60-80s of the 18th century.
It was only after the Seven Years War between England and France (1756-1763), which ended with the defeat of France, that these major colonial powers began to look at Oceania as a possible object of colonial conquest. France, having lost most of its colonies, sought to compensate for the losses. Hence her attempts to penetrate into Oceania (voyages of L.-A. Bougainville, 60s and J.-F. La Perouse, 80s). England, well aware of these attempts, tried to prevent them (Cook's voyages in 1769-1779 and later travels). But since peace had just been concluded between the two countries, the renewed rivalry could not take open forms. The desire to gain a foothold in the Pacific had to be masked by more plausible motives: scientific research. And so the expeditions of Bougainville and Cook act as voyages with the aim of "purely scientific" discoveries and research.
In 1768 Bougainville finally found the long-wanted Solomon Islands. On the way to them, he visited Tahiti, Samoa, the New Hebrides. Bougainville wrote the first, rather detailed and colorful, description of Tahiti. He portrayed Tahiti as a kind of happy island where people live in fertile natural conditions, almost not caring for food. This description was taken as a basis and further developed in the antifeudal concept of the "happy savage", popular in French educational philosophy of the 18th century. and reached the greatest flowering in the worldview of Rousseau and his followers.
Thus, by the time of Cook's first voyage, many of the Oceanian island groups had already been discovered. Nevertheless, James Cook's three great voyages constituted an important page in the history of the exploration of Oceania.
During his first voyage (1768-1771), Cook circled New Zealand and discovered the strait between the South and North Islands, named after him. Thus, he established that New Zealand is two independent islands. From New Zealand, Cook sailed to Australia and then led his ship from Botany Bay (a bay near present-day Sydney) to the north, sailed along the Torres Strait, along the Carpentaria Bay and headed for Java. Cook's second (1772-1775) and third (1776-1779) travels were geographically fruitful as well. Of the discoveries made on the second voyage, the most important is the discovery of New Caledonia, on the third - the Hawaiian Islands. He died in Hawaii in 1779.
Cook kept fairly detailed entries in his diaries, which served as material for describing his travels. In total, Cook spent many months in New Zealand, Tahiti and the Hawaiian Islands, which allowed him and a number of his companions to master the Polynesian languages and enter into close relations with the indigenous people.
On all travels, Cook was accompanied by natural scientists: in the first - J. Banks, in the second - Johann and Georg Forster, in the third - Anderson (who died during the trip), as well as artists.
The diaries and notes of Georg Forster are of particular importance. His descriptions, however, are characterized by a certain arrogance of the syllable and a tendency to idealize the life of the Oceanian world. In this respect, Forster continues the Bougainville line. Anderson's notes, which, along with those of Cook himself, constituted the main content of the description of the third journey, are more sober, rationalistic and probably more accurate.
The albums of Cook's expedition give a rather detailed and vivid, albeit stylized, picture of the life, everyday life, material culture of the indigenous inhabitants of Oceania at that time.
Finally, during the travels of Cook, ethnographic collections were collected quite conscientiously, which still adorn a number of museums.
La Perouse's voyage began in 1785. He went on two ships "Astrolabe" and "Busol", visited Easter Island (Rapanui) and left beautiful sketches of stone statues on this island. Then he sailed along the northwestern coast of North America and California, crossed the Pacific Ocean to the Mariana Islands, climbed north, trying to go to the mouth of the Amur, reached Kamchatka and sent his companion Lesseps from there to France, giving him his diaries. Then he headed south, visited Samoa, entered Botany Bay (Australia). This was in 1788. The first batch of English exiles had just arrived there, and La Pérouse was present at the founding of the Port Jackson colony. From here he swam east again and disappeared without a trace. Meanwhile, Lesseps crossed all of Siberia, Europe and reached Paris. Thanks to this, a two-volume description of La Perouse's journey has come down to us.
In 1791, the French revolutionary government sent Captain D'Antrcasteau in search of La Perouse. D'Antrkasto sailed mainly in the region of Melanesia and, as it was later established, passed, without suspecting anything, a few kilometers from the island where the surviving members of La Perouse's team lived at that time. On the way back, D'Antrkasto died, and descriptions of this trip were made by his companions, the most detailed - J. Labillardier.
Then a number of expeditions were made to search for La Perouse. But it was only in 1828 that Dumont-Durville, collecting information about La Perouse from the islands, finally reached the small island of Tycopy, located near the New Hebrides. ”Here he learned from the islanders that La Perouse's ships had crashed on the coastal reefs near the island of Vanikoro. Most of La Perouse's satellites were killed, and La Perouse himself, with the remnants of the crew, sailed on a makeshift ship (in which direction - it was not possible to establish) and, probably, died. However, a few sailors remained on Vanikoro, who died just two or three years before the appearance of Dumont-D'Urville.
Man appeared in Australia 40 thousand years ago. These were the newcomers from South and Southeast Asia, the forerunners of the modern aborigines. Having settled in the eastern part of Australia, people penetrated into Tasmania. The fact that Tasmanians are descendants of ancient Australians is confirmed by recent archaeological finds on Hunter Island in the Bass Strait.
The assumptions about the existence of the mysterious Terra incognita Australis - "Unknown southern land" to the south of the equator were expressed by ancient geographers. The vast area of land in the southern hemisphere was depicted on maps in the 15th century, although its outline was not in any way reminiscent of Australia. The Portuguese had some information about the northern shores of Australia as early as the 16th century; they came from the inhabitants of the Malay Islands, who visited the coastal waters of the mainland to catch trepangs. However, until the 17th century, none of the Europeans managed to see Australia with their own eyes.
The discovery of Australia has long been associated with the name of the English navigator James Cook. In fact, the first Europeans who visited the shores of this continent and met here with scattered tribes of aborigines were the Dutch: Willem Janszon in 1605. and Abel Tasman in 1642. Janszon crossed the Torres Strait and sailed along the coast of the Cape York Peninsula, while Tasman discovered the southwestern part of Tasmania, which he considered part of the mainland. And the Spaniard Torres in 1606. sailed by the strait, which separates the island of New Guinea from the mainland.
However, the Spanish and Dutch kept their discoveries secret. James Cook sailed to the east coast of Australia only one hundred and fifty years later, in 1770, and immediately declared it an English possession. Here was created a royal "penal colony" for criminals, and later - for exiled members of the Chartist movement in England. Arrived in 1788. with the "first fleet" to the shores of Australia, representatives of the British authorities founded the city of Sydney, which was later proclaimed the administrative center of the city created in 1824. British colony of New South Wales. With the arrival of the “second fleet,” the first free migrants appeared. The development, or rather, the seizure of the mainland, begins, accompanied by the most severe extermination of the indigenous population. The natives were hunted, and bonuses were given for those killed. Often, the colonists organized real raids on the indigenous inhabitants of Australia, killing them without distinction of gender and age, scattered poisonous food, after which people died in terrible agony. Not surprisingly, a hundred years later, most of the indigenous population was exterminated. The remaining aborigines were driven from the land of their ancestors and driven into the interior desert areas. In 1827. England announces the establishment of its sovereignty over the entire continent.
The end of the 18th and the whole of the 19th century. for Australia - the time of geographical discoveries. S1797 began the exploration of the continent's shores by the talented English hydrographer M. Flinders, whose works are assessed by Australian geographers as highly as Cook's discoveries. He confirmed the existence of the Bass Strait, surveyed the coasts of Tasmania and South Australia, the entire eastern and northern coasts of the mainland, mapped the Great Barrier Reef. Flinders, on the other hand, suggested giving the continent the name "Australia", replacing the previously adopted designation on the maps "New Holland", which was finally supplanted since 1824.
By the XIX century. the contours of the mainland were mostly mapped, but the interior remained a “blank spot”. The first attempt to penetrate deep into Australia was made in 1813. an expedition of English colonists who discovered a passage through the Blue Mountains and discovered magnificent grazing lands west of the Great Dividing Range. The "land fever" began: a stream of free settlers poured into Australia, seizing vast plots of land, where they organized thousands of sheep breeding farms. Such land grabbing was called “squattering”.
The parties of prospectors moved farther west, south and north, crossed the Murray and Marrumbidgee rivers. B1840 P. Strzelecki discovered the highest peak of the mainland in the Australian Alps, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honor of the national hero of Poland.
More than a dozen large expeditions were equipped to explore the Inland regions of Australia, attempts were made to cross the continent. Significant discoveries in the interior of the continent belong to Charles Sturt, who first discovered the Darling River and the Simpson Desert. Significant discoveries in the southeast were made by D. Mitchell, in the west - by D. Gray; W. Leichgard passed from the Darling Ridge to the northern coast, but three years later, while trying to cross the continent from east to west, his expedition disappeared in the endless deserts of Central Australia.
The unfortunate outcome of the Kennedy and Leichhardt expeditions suspended exploration of the country for many years. Only in 1855 did Gregory set out with two ships to the north bank, west of Arnghamsland, to explore the Victoria River that flows into the sea there. Following the course of this river, Gregory turned southwest, but returned, being stopped by an almost impenetrable desert. Soon thereafter, he again embarked on a journey westward to find, if possible, traces of Leichhardt, and returned to Adelaide without reaching his goal. At the same time, it was decided to conduct a near exploration of the salt lake region north of Spencer's Bay. Harris, Miller, Dyllon, Warburton, Swinden Campbedl and many others rendered great services in this study. Mac Dual Stewart made three trips to the salt lakes region and drew up a plan for an expedition across the entire continent, in a direction from south to north. In 1860, he walked to the middle of the mainland and hoisted the English banner on Central Stuart Mountain, which has a height of 1000 meters. In June, owing to the hostile situation occupied by the natives, he was forced to abandon his enterprise. In January 1861, however, he resumed his attempt to pass the mainland from south to north and penetrated 11/2 further inland than the first time, but in July he had to return without reaching the intended goal. The third attempt was made by him in November of the same year and was crowned with success: on July 24, 1862, Stewart hoisted the English flag on the northern bank of Arnghamsland and returned almost dying to his compatriots. Shortly before Stewart's return from his first voyage, in August 1860, an expedition headed by Robert O "Gar Burke departed from Melbourne, accompanied by the astronomer Wils, the doctor Beckler, the naturalist Bocker and others, including about 30 people with 25 camels, 25 horses. etc. The travelers were divided into three parties, each of which had to rely on the other in case of need to seek refuge in the rear.Bourke, Wils, King and Gray in February 1861 were already on the marshy coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria, but could not reach the sea. April they arrived at the encampment of the second party, but found him abandoned.Burke and his companions died of hunger; only King escaped, who, in September 1861, was found in the encampment of the natives by an expedition expelled from Melbourne; he was as thin as a skeleton. , later sent to find Burke, passed through the whole continent. At the initiative of Melbourne botanist Miller, the ladies' committee in the Victoria colony in 1865 raised funds for a new trip, the immediate goal of which was to clarify the fate of the missing expedition of Leichgardt. Duncan Max Intyr, who saw the traces of the expedition in the upper reaches of the Flinder River in 1864, became the head of the new enterprise and set out in July 1865; but inside the country such a terrible drought prevailed that half of the total number of participants had to be sent back to the colony. Soon Max Intyr died of a malignant fever, and the same fate befell his companion, Broken. After them, who took over the leadership of the expedition, W. Barnett returned to Sydney in 1867 without collecting any new information about Leichhardt. In 1866, for the same search, an expedition was sent from the colony of Western Australia, which they managed to learn from the natives, in one locality (under 31 south latitude and 122 east long.) That several years before they had been killed in 13 days of travel from there to the north, on the dry bottom of one lake, two whites with three horses that were with them. This story was repeated in a different locality. Therefore, in April 1869, an expedition to the said lake was equipped, which, although it did not achieve its goal, then penetrated into the interior of the country further than all previous expeditions headed from the west. Already from 1824 the British government made various attempts to occupy the northern coast of Australia.During 41/2 years it maintained a military post (Fort Dundas) on the western coast of Melville Island, for two years another post (Fort Wellington) on the Coburg Peninsula and from 1838 to 1849 garrison at Port Essington. But since the hope of gaining from trade relations between Australia and East Asia did not materialize, these attempts were abandoned. Only after Stewart in 1862 from the colony of South Australia passed through the mainland to the northern coast of Arnghamsland, and "Nothern Territory" was placed under the control of this colony, the latter took up the question of settling the country. In April 1864, a geometers naval expedition headed north from Port Adelaide under the command of Colonel Finnis, who was soon replaced by McKinlay. The latter in 1866 began to explore Arnghamsland, but the rainy season and floods did not allow him to carry out his intention, and he returned to Adelaide. Then in February 1867, the South Australian government sent to the north bank Captain Cadell, who discovered the significant Blyth River, and from 1868 the chief surveyor Goyder, who surveyed an area of 2,700 square meters in the vicinity of Port Darwin. km. Colonization was more successful in northern Kinsland, especially in the direction of the Gulf of Carpentaria, since cattle breeding needed new pastures, for which private entrepreneurship took up. In the early forties, in all of present-day Kinsland, only the vicinity of Moretonbay was inhabited, and even then very poorly. Since then, settlements have expanded in the north to the Gulf of Carpentaria. When subsequently, from 1872, the telegraph communication of Australia with Asia and through it with all other countries of the world was established, the study of the interior of the Australian mainland made great strides. Already during the laying of the telegraph wire, small settlements began to appear on the way, from which expeditions were then undertaken to explore the country. So, in 1872, Ernst Gilles, leaving the Chambers Pillar telegraph station, followed the course of the Finke River to its source, where he discovered the extremely fertile country of Glen of Palms. Geometer Gosse departed from the Alice Springs telegraph station in 1873 and discovered at 25 21 "s. Lat. And 131 14" east. duty. monolith Ayres Rock, 370 m high. During his second trip, Gilles made sure of the existence of a large desert in western Australia. John Forrest in 1874 reached the Murchison watershed, from where the barren desert begins, which he explored at a distance of 900 km. Between 1875 and 1878, Gilles undertook three new voyages to the barren steppes of inland Australia. In 1877, on behalf of the government of the colony of South Australia, the course of the Herbert River was investigated, and trigonometric measurements were made and, in addition, an expedition was undertaken to explore completely unknown countries lying on the seashore. This expedition discovered the large river Moubre, which falls in three waterfalls up to 150 m high. Sergison, in November 1877, discovered excellent arable land off the banks of the Victoria River. John Forrest returned in 1879 from a journey he had taken to a completely unknown northeastern part of the colony of western Australia, during which he discovered beautiful alluvial plains on the banks of the Fitzroy River. His second trip led to the discovery in Western Australia of 20 million. and in southern Australia about 5 mil. acres of good pasture and arable land, of which a significant portion was suitable for the cultivation of sugar cane and rice. In addition, the interior of the country was explored by other expeditions in 1878 and 1879, and John Forrest, on behalf of the Western Australian government, made a trigonometric measurement between the Ashburton and De Gray rivers, and from his reports it turns out that the local area is very convenient for settlements In writing this article, material from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary was used.Discovery of Oceania
For the first time, Europeans entered Oceania at the beginning of the 16th century. Since then, over the course of several centuries, Oceania has been the scene of numerous naval expeditions equipped by Western European and other states. Not only sailors and scientists who dreamed of discovering new lands were sent to this part of our planet, but also colonial traders and slave traders, various government officials and agents, missionaries.
The history of discoveries and seizures of islands in the Pacific Ocean can be roughly divided into three periods: in the 16th century the Spanish and Portuguese dominated here, in the 17th - the Dutch, and in the 18th - the British. In the XIX century. they were joined by the Americans and the Japanese
The beginning of the geographical discoveries of Europeans in Oceania was laid by the first round-the-world voyage of Magellan, who in 1521 visited the island of Guam (Mariana Islands). In the XVI century. Spanish and Portuguese navigators discovered the Caroline, Marshall, Solomon, Marquesas, Tokelau, Santa Cruz islands.
The northwestern bulge of New Guinea was first visited by the Portuguese navigator Jorge Minezia in 1526.
After the conquest of Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards organized a series of expeditions to establish a sea route between the west coast of Central and South America and the Philippine Islands. In 1542, from the port of Acapulco (Mexico), an expedition of Rui López Villalovos set out for the Philippines. In 1544, a participant in this expedition, Retes, landed on the shores of the island, discovered by Minesia, and declared it the possession of the Spanish king, giving it the name of New Guinea. Two expeditions of the Spaniard Alvaro Men-Danny de Neira in 1567 and 1595. the Solomon Islands, the Marquesas Islands, and a number of islands in South Polynesia were discovered.
Further discoveries of the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia were made by the Spanish expedition of Kyros in 1605. Kyros claimed to have discovered the great southern continent and gave it the name "Australia of the Holy Spirit." The captain of one of the ships of this expedition, Torres, after Kyros returned to Mexico, passed along the southern coast of New Guinea and discovered the strait separating this island from the real Australia. Arriving in 1607. to the Philippine Islands, Torres submitted a report of his discoveries to the Spanish authorities in Manila. He proved that New Guinea is not part of the southern mainland, but a huge island, separated from other large islands (in fact, from Australia) by a strait. The Spaniards kept this discovery a secret.
150 years after Torres 'voyage, during the Seven Years' War, the British landed on the island of Luzon and seized the government archives of Manila. This is how Torres' report fell into their hands. In 1768, the English navigator James Cook received a special government assignment to explore Oceania. He again "discovered" the islands of Oceania and the strait between Australia and New Guinea, long known to the Spaniards. Cook also discovered a number of new islands and explored the east coast of Australia. At the same time, the English scientist Alexander Dalrymple published secret Spanish documents captured in Manila, after which Cook himself was forced to admit that the strait between New Guinea and Australia was known to the Spaniards already at the beginning of the 17th century. In the second half of the 18th century. this strait was named the Torres Strait.
During the one and a half century interval between the discovery of Torres and the voyage of James Cook, a number of Dutch navigators - Endracht, Edel, Nates, Thyssen and others visited various parts of the coast of Australia, which received in the 17th century. name New Holland. In 1642, the governor-general of the Dutch possessions in Southeast Asia, Van Diemen, instructed Abel Tasman to round New Holland from the south. During this voyage, Tasman saw an island that he called Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania). Passing along the eastern shores of New Zealand, he discovered the archipelagos of Tonga and Fiji and, having rounded New Guinea from the north, returned to Batavia. Expedition of Tasman 1642-1643 denied the assumption that New Holland is part of the great Antarctic continent, but created an erroneous idea of the outlines of Australia: Tasman considered the islands of Tasmania and New Guinea to be protrusions of the single continent of New Holland.
James Cook surveyed the shores of New Zealand and the east coast of Australia during his three voyages in 1768-1779. Then he discovered the island of New Caledonia and the numerous islands of Polynesia. The eastern part of Australia was named New South Wales by Cook. French navigators (Bougainville, La Pérouse, etc.) also made a number of travels and discoveries in Oceania in the 60-80s of the 18th century.
Beginning in 1788, for more than half a century, the British government used Australia as a place of exile for criminals and political criminals. The administration of the convict colony seized vast areas of fertile land, which were cultivated by forced labor of exiled settlers. The indigenous population was pushed back into the deserts of central Australia, where they died out or were exterminated. Its number, which reached the time of the arrival of the British at the end of the 18th century. 250-300 thousand, decreased by the end of the next century to 70 thousand people. The British colonialists acted with particular cruelty on the island of Tasmania. Here they organized real raids on people who were killed like wild animals. As a result, the population of the island was destroyed to the last person.
Little by little, English colonies were formed in Australia, representing in language, economy and culture a continuation of the capitalist metropolis. At first, these colonies were not connected with each other, and only by the beginning of the 20th century. formed the Australian Federation, which received the rights of the English dominion. The economic and political development of the Australian colonies of England dates back to the subsequent period of modern history.
Thus, by the beginning of the 17th century. Europeans discovered Northern Melanesia and Micronesia, Northern and Eastern Polynesia. Most of the rest of Polynesia, South Melanesia and New Zealand remained unknown.
Key dates in Australian history
40,000 BC - The ancestors of the aborigines - tribes of Asian origin - arrive on the mainland in several waves from the island of New Guinea.
1606 Willem Jansson is the first European to set foot on the northern coast of Australia.
1642 - Dutchman Abel Tasman discovers Tasmania.
1770 James Cook lands at Botany Bay and proclaims the new land a British colony, calling it New South Wales.
1788 - The landing of the first contingent of English convicts. Establishment of an exile colony in Sydney. After the expiration of the term of imprisonment, convicts acquire the right to free settlement.
1813 - First explorer of the central mainland, Gregory Bleskland, crosses the Blue Mountains west of Sydney to discover western Australia. The beginning of the era of pastoralism.
1830-1840 - Breeding of the first merino sheep, which has become one of the main sectors of the economy. To this day, the country has the largest sheep population in the world (167 million heads) and is the largest wool producer.
1830 - In Tasmania, soldiers and English colonists begin to exterminate the natives.
1835 Melbourne founded.
1851 - The beginning of the gold rush
1858 - The colonies of New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria adopt their own constitutions, considered at the time the most democratic in the world.
1862 - Import and start of breeding of rabbits, the number of which reached one billion by 1950
1868 Arrival of the last ship with prisoners. Australia is no longer a place of exile for criminals.
1889 - The first Australian Constitution is adopted. The Constitutional Assembly selects Melbourne as its seat.
1901 Queen Victoria of England, monarch of Australia, signs the Constitution. Federation of Six States (New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia) renamed Commonwealth of Australia
1901 Parliament introduces a bill known as the White Australia Policy to discourage Asian immigration.
1909 (27?) - The capital is transferred from Melbourne to Canberra.
1930-1939 - The global crisis is reaching Australia. Prices for wool and grain are falling. Every third resident is unemployed.
1936 Death of the last tiger in Tasmania.
1956 Melbourne Olympic Games
1967 - Aboriginal people acquire Australian citizenship
1975 - Granting independence to Papua New Guinea
1976 - A law is passed providing for the return of part of the land to Aboriginal property.
1985 - Parliament creates a commission to investigate the British nuclear tests in the 1950s. The Commission declares the lack of security measures, which led to a risk to the lives of people.
2000 - Sydney Olympic Games
Since the lands discovered by Columbus turned out to be not a part of Asia, but a new continent, an obstacle on the way to India and the Mollux Islands, the question arose of finding a bypass route. The Spanish king Charles I, who did not receive much income from his possessions in the West Indies, accepted the proposal of the Portuguese F. Magalhães (1480-1521) to organize an expedition with the aim of circling the American continent from the south and reaching Asia through the Pacific Ocean. During this first round the world trip (September 20, 1519 - September 6, 1522) F. Magellan discovered the strait between South America and about. Tierra del Fuego (Strait of Magellan), went through it into the Pacific Ocean, crossed the ocean, discovering the Mariana Islands, and reached the Philippines.
Only on March 6 did the land appear - one of the Mariana Islands. On March 15, the flotilla approached the island of Samar in the archipelago, later called the Philippine. On another island in this archipelago, on April 7, 1521, Magellan was killed in a skirmish with local residents. Having lost more than twenty people and one ship in the Philippine Islands, the expedition on two ships - "Victoria" and "Trinidad" - headed to Borneo, and then to the Moluccas, where the Portuguese had already settled. The captain of the "Victoria" Sebastian El Cano from the Moluccas headed to Spain by the "Portuguese" route, skirting the Cape of Good Hope; the command "Trinidad" tried to bring the ship to Panama, but was forced to return to the Moluccas, where they were captured by the Portuguese. El Cano on September 6, 1522 entered the harbor of San Lucar de Barrameda with eighteen survivors of the great voyage.
The significance of the Voyage of Magellan - El Cano was enormous. They managed to find a strait in the southern part of the American continent, managed to cross the Pacific Ocean and prove that America is separated from Asia by a body of water much larger than the Atlantic Ocean in width. The first circumnavigation of the world was made, which in practice confirmed that the Earth is spherical.
In 1529, Spain and Portugal signed the Saragossa Treaty on a new division of the world: Asia (with the exception of the Philippines) was recognized as the sphere of interests of Portugal, and the Pacific Ocean (Oceania) - Spain. The Spanish exploration of Oceania began in the second half of the 16th century: the Solomon Islands (A. Mendaña de Neira; 1567-1569), the Marquesas and Santa Cruz Islands (A. Mendaña de Neira; 1595) were discovered. , Islands New Hybrids (P.F. Kyros; 1605).
At the beginning of the 17th century. confirmed the hypothesis popular in Europe about the existence of a great southern continent (Australia). Perhaps back in the 16th century. the northern coast of Australia was visited by the Portuguese, but the honor of its discovery is attributed to the Dutchman V. Janz, who in 1606 discovered the western coast of the Cape York Peninsula; in the same year the Spaniard L.V. de Torres opened the strait between Australia and Fr. New Guinea (Torres Strait). In the 1610-1630s. several Dutch expeditions surveyed the northern shores of the continent.
During his first trip (1642-1643) the Dutchman J.A. Tasman circled Australia from the south, proving that it is a single land mass, and discovered about. Tasmania, about. New Zealand, Tonga and Fiji; during his second voyage (1644) he explored the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria. However, the harsh natural conditions (most of the continent - deserts and semi-deserts, lack of water resources), remoteness from the main trade routes, lack of reserves of gold and spices until the 19th century. obstructed the colonization of Australia.
